WEBSTER-COOLEY LANGUAGE SERIES 



THE ELEMENTS 
OF ENGLISH 
GRAMMAR 



WILLIAM 

FRANK 
WEBSTER 



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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



WEBSTER-COOLEY LANGUAGE SERIES 

THE ELEMENTS OF 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

BY 

W. F. WEBSTER 

Principal of the East High School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 
ASSISTED BY 

ALICE WOODWORTH COOLEY 




HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY 

Boston : 4 Park Street ; New York : 85 Fifth Avenue 

Chicago : 378-388 Wabash Avenue 

(£})e ftifcerpide pre??, Cambridge 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 

Two Cooles Received 

AUG 18 1904 

/i Cooyrlsrht Entry 
{ j^yt^te 3. /(? e>^~ 

£>LASS # XXo. No. 
COPY B 







COPYRIGHT, I904, BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO. 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



PREFACE 

For some time the study of grammar has been ar- 
raigned as unnecessary and unprofitable. Those who have 
opposed it have been of that number who see but one end 
in its study, — to give an easy command of correct lan- 
guage. If this were the only purpose of the study of 
grammar, there would be serious doubt of its utility ; for 
pupils who know little of grammar are frequently correct 
in their use of language, and it sometimes happens that a 
person skillful in the analysis of sentences and the parsing 
of words is a barbarian in his speech. A pure diction 
is very largely a matter of habit and environment. Still, 
even this admission does not establish the opponents' con- 
tention. Many errors in speech are corrected by the study 
of grammar ; the children of foreign descent and of 
illiterate parentage are daily being helped toward the use 
of pure English by the application of rules derived from 
grammars. Pupils have learned the unseemliness of the 
unequal yoking together of singular nouns and plural verbs, 
and other alliances equally disgraceful. It is not claimed 
that grammar is the most powerful means of forming 
correct habits of speech, but it is yet an influence that 
establishes one already refined in the use of language, by 
showing him the reasons for its correctness ; and it puts 
into the hands of the youth ambitious to be correct in his 
speech one of the means for accomplishing his purpose. 

Moreover, the insight into the structure of sentences 
obtained while studying grammar is of great value in the 
study of literature. Not all sentences in literature are 



iv PREFACE 

child's sentences. Great men often compose involved and 
intricate sentences ; and to read great literature requires 
the ability to straighten out tangled threads of thought. 
This power the student is constantly acquiring in the 
analysis of sentences. And right at the beginning the 
word should be spoken, that analysis is the important 
part of grammar. Parsing is of much less value. To 
give the person, number, and gender of a noun requires 
but little thought ; even case may be correctly guessed 
half the time. Indeed, parsing seems little more than a 
knack ; while analysis demands thought. And this ana- 
lytic thought develops intellectual strength and acumen, 
invaluable in the study of literature. 

This brings us to the third and most important consid- 
eration in favor of the study of grammar. There is no 
subject a child in the grades pursues that makes such 
demands upon his reason. Arithmetic may at times 
approach it ; but spelling, geography, and history are 
chiefly exercises of the memory. Grammar is par ex- 
cellence the study for developing the reasoning faculty. 
From a group of sentences the pupil is set to discover 
some common characteristic ; possibly he is put upon the 
track of an objective complement. From many examples 
he finds out that this new element always names an attri- 
bute of the object complement ; and next that this ele- 
ment always names the result of the action asserted by 
the verb. These are the characteristics of this new ele- 
ment ; and the pupil has arrived at them in exactly the 
same way that a classification is made in botany or chem- 
istry. The process is the inductive method of modern 
science. After the classification has been made, and the 
characteristics of the class have been accurately stated in 
a definition, the pupil fixes his knowledge by the applica- 
tion of his definition to a large number of cases found in 



PREFACE v 

the material for practice. Here he is unconsciously ac- 
quiring skill in methods of deductive reasoning. So that 
it may truly be said that grammar is the elementary 
school of logic, the first study of the laws of thought. 

This text-book has been constructed with these three 
principles in view. A grammar must give guides for the 
correction of errors in speech and composition ; it should 
give to students the ability to unravel the intricate web of 
thought found in literature ; and it fails when it does not 
yield strong scientific thinking power. The illustrative 
sentences, the development questions, and the exercises are 
arranged with this threefold purpose. 

There are some questions that are very difficult for 
pupils in the grammar grades. Indeed, the commonest 
idioms of every -day speech are the most difficult problems 
the student has to contend with. If these idioms were 
not so common, they might well be omitted from any ele- 
mentary text-book ; but because they are so common, be- 
cause they form such an important part of our language, 
they demand classification and explanation. These diffi- 
culties are found principally in the chapters upon " Some 
Common Verbs " and " The Subjunctive Mode." Authori- 
ties do not agree upon all these matters ; but the author 
of this book has followed those who are acknowledged 
masters, and who seem to him to have a thorough and in- 
timate understanding of the history and development of 
our language, and of its present usage. It has not been 
the intention to find easy solutions that do not solve, or 
to make statements that are but half-truths. These mat- 
ters are extremely difficult in themselves ; they require 
of the student the most careful discrimination ; and no 
method of treatment can make the inherent difficulties 
easy. Whether a pupil entirely conquers these problems 
or not, if he learns what they are, and solves some of 



vi PREFACE 

them, he has, by these exercises, made great gains in his 
ability to do close, accurate thinking. 

This book contains many sentences, — possibly too 
many ; but it is easier for a teacher to omit what are un- 
necessary than to find time in a crowded day to collect 
more. Any exercise is useful until its lesson is learned, — 
no longer. It would be as sensible to continue submitting 
tanagers to a student of birds for their classification, or 
trilliums to a student of flowers, after both were thor- 
oughly known, as to continue giving a student of language 
adverbial nouns when adverbial nouns were perfectly 
familiar. Use only as many sentences as are needed. 

Moreover, it is worse than a waste of precious time 
to continue detailed analysis when it has become familiar 
rote work. Such repetition induces thoughtless, slovenly 
inaccuracy. A prepositional phrase is generally composed 
of a preposition and a modified noun ; and it is a posi- 
tive injury to a class to go on separating all prepositional 
phrases into their component parts. The same principle 
holds with many of the subordinate processes necessary to 
the complete analysis of sentences, as well as with much 
of the parsing. Stale, unprofitable matters should be 
dropped ; fresh, inviting problems should be set for study. 
Grammar can be made one of the most valuable studies 
in the curriculum ; but it should be made a fascinating- 
subject as well. It is a branch of study that yields boun- 
tiful returns by cultivating greater purity o£ speech, by 
giving an understanding and appreciation of our rich, 
beautiful literature, and by training and developing the 
reasoning faculty, — the chief glory of educated man. 

W. F. Webster. 

Minneapolis, May 23, 1904. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PART I 

PAGE 

SENTENCES, 1 

Subject, Predicate, Complements 

MODIFIERS, 32 

Phrases, Clauses 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES, 59 

PART II 

NOUNS 92 

PRONOUNS 96 

ADJECTIVES ,128 

VERBS 136 

ADVERBS 201 

PREPOSITIONS 206 

CONJUNCTIONS 210 



THE ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH 
GRAMMAR. 



PART I. 

AN IDEA. 



1. All have probably played a very common game 
called " Twenty Questions," or " Yes and No." You 
remember that one person leaves the room, while other 
members of the party agree upon an object which the first 
is to find out by asking twenty questions, to be answered 
by " Yes " or " No." Suppose that the person has come 
back into the room to begin his questioning. His first 
inquiry is, " Is it large ? " The answer is, " No." " Is 
it pretty ? " " Yes." " Is it expensive ? " " Yes." " Is 
it useful?" "Yes." " Is it ornamental ? " "Yes." "Is it 
made of gold?" "Yes." And so he goes on, until he 
learns that it is small, pretty, expensive, useful, orna- 
mental, made of gold, — at last, a watch. 

Each person in the room had seen the watch selected, 
and knew just how it looked. In his mind he had a 
picture of this watch. This mental picture is called an 
idea. His idea of the watch was of an object, small, 
pretty, expensive, useful, ornamental, made of gold. The 
questioner found out these qualities, or attributes, one at 
a time ; then he put them together and built up for him- 
self the picture of a watch. This picture in his mind, or 
this idea, of the watch is made of the sum of its attributes, 



2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

or qualities. And so it is with the idea of every object ; 
it is made from the sum of the attributes that describe it. 

EXERCISE. 

2. Name five attributes of each of the following objects. 
Be sure to select those which, when added together, will 
make a good mental picture of the object. 

Sea, sky, forest, stream, plain, cloud, ice, steam, smoke, stone. 

EXERCISE. 

3. On a small piece of paper write the names of ten 
attributes of an object. Select good ones. Be sure not 
to name the object. Exchange these slips. Each may 
then tell the name of the object described on the slip of 
paper he has. 

A SENTENCE. 

4. When in the game the question was asked, " Is it 
large? " each person thought, " The watch is small." He 
united the idea which he had of the object with the idea 
of smallness. Such a union of two ideas makes a thought. 
And when this thought is expressed in words, these words 
form a sentence. "The watch is small," then, is a sen- 
tence. 

In the sentence, "A watch is small," the word " watch " 
names that of which something is thought and said ; it is 
called the subject of the sentence. The word " small " 
tells what attribute is asserted or predicated 1 of the sub- 
ject " watch " ; it is called the predicate attribute of the 
sentence. The word " is " asserts the relation existing 
between the subject and the predicate attribute. It is 
used to link, or couple, the subject and the predicate 
attribute ; it is called the copula. 1 

1 For the primary meaning' of these words see the dictionary. These 
primary definitions will help you to understand what these words mean in 
grammar. 



A SENTENCE 3 

First, then, there are objects — real things. Next 
there are mental pictures of these objects, called ideas, 
each made up of a number of attributes. Third, there is 
a union of the two ideas named by the subject and the 
predicate attribute, making a thought. The union is 
made by the copula. And fourth, there is a statement 
of this thought in words, making a sentence. 

A SENTENCE IS THE EXPRESSION OF A COMPLETE THOUGHT 
IN WORDS. 

Every thought is made of three parts ; and every sen- 
tence, representing a thought, must contain these three ele- 
ments : subject, copula, and predicate attribute. 

THE SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE NAMES THAT OF WHICH SOME- 
THING IS ASSERTED. 

THE PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE OF A SENTENCE NAMES THAT 
WHICH IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT. 

THE COPULA OF A SENTENCE IS THE WORD OR GROUP OF 
WORDS THAT ASSERTS THE RELATION BETWEEN THE SUBJECT 
AND THE PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 

EXERCISE. 

5. In each of the following sentences, select the sub- 
ject, predicate attribute, and copula. 

1. The Amazon is broad. 

2. Plains are level. 

3. The Himalaya Mountains are high. 

4. The Indians were friendly. 

5. The settlers became suspicious. 

6. Their arrows were poisoned. 

7. The colonists grew fearful. 

8. Flowers are beautiful. 

9. The rose is fragrant. 

10. Pines are healthful. 

11. The forest is peaceful. 

12. The sea looks rough. 

13. Sea-breezes are refreshing. 

14. The frost is here. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



15. 


The woods are sere. 


23. 


16. 


The blue jay is noisy. 


24. 


17. 


Living is loving. 


25. 


18. 


A child will be happy. 


26. 


19. 


The student becomes wise. 


27. 


20. 


Beethoven was deaf. 


28. 


21. 


Milton was blind. 


29. 


22. 


Byron was lame. 


30. 



Holmes was humorous. 
Emerson was wise. 
Lowell was witty. 
Charity is beautiful. 
Stinginess is ugly. 
Courage is noble. 
Wrestling is exciting. 
Singing is enjoyable. 



EXERCISE. 



6. Supply copulas and predicate attributes to the fol- 
lowing subjects. 

1. My mother 6. The leaves 

2. The birds 7. Warships 

3. Dickens 8. Rover 

4. Trees 9. New York 

5. Rivers 10. A graceful spire 

EXERCISE. 

7. Supply copulas and subjects to the following predi- 
cate attributes. 

1. easy 6; wide 

2. high 7. helpful 

3. brilliant 8. light 

4. noble 9. jolly 

5. expensive 10. honorable 

NOUNS. 

8. In Section 5, think what each subject names. Tell 
which subjects name persons ; actions ; qualities of mind ; 
objects in nature. 

Though these words are not all names of things which 
we can see, hear, or know through the senses, they are all 
names of things about which we can think. These words 
are nouns. 

A NOUN IS A WORD THAT NAMES A SUBJECT OF THOUGHT. 
Which of the nouns in Section 5 point out one particu- 



PRONOUNS 5 

lar person, one individual ? Which name any one of a 
large class of objects ? 

In the sentence " Victoria was a beloved queen," the 
noun "Victoria" points out one individual ; the word 
" Victoria " is a proper noun. The word " queen " is the 
name common to all persons of that class ; the word 
" queen " is a common noun. 

A COMMON NOUN IS A WORD THAT NAMES ANY ONE OF A 
CLASS. 

A PROPER NOUN IS A WORD THAT NAMES AN INDIVIDUAL 
TO DISTINGUISH IT FROM OTHERS OF THE CLASS TO WHICH IT 
BELONGS. 

EXERCISE. 

9. In Sections 5 and 6, select and classify the nouns. 
Give the reason for calling each word a noun, and the 
reason for placing it in the class you do. This exercise 
may be continued with other lessons, until you are certain 
of nouns and their classification. 

PRONOUNS. 

10. (a) Watt invented the steam engine, but he did not perfect it. 

(b) To be honest under all circumstances is difficult, but it 

always pays. 

(c) It had been proved that the earth is round, and this led 

adventurers to seek their fortunes in unknown seas. 

(d) Blessed is that man who has found his work. 

What word in (a) represents the noun Watt without naming it ? 
What word means steam engine, but does not name it ? Neither 
of the words you have named is a noun, because neither names a 
subject of thought, though each represents a subject of thought. In 
(b) what word stands for the words " To be honest under all cir- 
cumstances " ? This little word does not name the idea which it 
represents. State the fact which the word this represents in (c). 
What word in (d) represents a subject of thought without naming it 
as a noun does ? These words are all pronouns. 1 

The difference between nouns and pronouns may be understood if 
1 Look in a dictionary for the primary meaning of the prefix pro. 



6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

you keep in mind the fact that when a noun stands all alone, it names 
a definite idea. "Football," for example, names a very popular 
game ; " Benedict Arnold " names a very unpopular man. These 
words are nouns. " It " or " that " or " they " does not suggest im- 
mediately any definite subject of thought. "I do not care for it" 
may mean " I do not care for some dish at table, or for football, or 
for one of a thousand other things." If the word " it " should be 
seen in a letter about a play, the word would probably stand for the 
" play." A noun names a subject of thought ; but a pronoun does 
not name a subject of thought ; it only represents it. 

A PRONOUN IS A WORD THAT REPRESENTS A SUBJECT OF 
THOUGHT, BUT DOES NOT NAME IT. 

EXERCISE. 

11. Select the nouns and pronouns in the following 
sentences. 

1. If you would be well served, you must serve yourself. 

2. Placing her hand on the cushion, her foot in the hand of her 

husband, 
Gayly, with joyous laugh, Priscilla mounted her palfrey. 

3. Drive thy business, or it will drive thee. 

4. " Nothing is wanting now," he said, with a smile, " but the dis- 

taff ; 
Then you would be in truth my queen, my beautiful Bertha." 

5. Every hour has its task or pleasure. 

6. Down through the golden leaves the sun was pouring his splen- 

dor. 

7. The little meadow violet lifts its cup of blue. 

8. We deceive ourselves oftener than others deceive us. 

9. The stream wears a smooth bed for itself. 

10. Onward the bridal procession now moved to their new habita- 

tion. 

11. For he who fights and runs away 
May live to fight another day. 

12. Oh, sleep ! it is a gentle thing, 

Beloved from pole to pole. 

13. Here 's a sigh to those who love me, 

And a smile to those who hate. 

14. He, who ascends to mountain-tops, shall find 

The loftiest peaks most wrapped in clouds and snow. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 7 

L5. Ilf was chubby and plump ;i right jolly old elf ; 

I laughed when I s;i\v him, in spile of myself ; 
A wink of bis eye, and a twist, of bis bead, 

Soon gave me to know I bad nothing to dread. 

He sprang to bis sleigh, to bis team gave a whistle, 
And away they all flew Like the down of a. thistle. 

EXERCISE. 

12. Frame ten sentences, using the following words as 

pronouns: I, themselves, that, which, whoni, it, her, 
this, my, him. 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

13. Classify the nouns in the next paragraph as com- 
in on or proper, giving the reason for your classification. 
Select the pronouns, and name the word which each repre- 
sents. 

Finally, however, among these hunters one arose whose wander- 
ings were to bear fruit ; wbo was destined to lead through the wil- 
derness the first body of settlers that ever established a community in 
the far west, Completely eut. off from the seaboard colonies. Tins 

was Daniel Boone. He was boru in Pennsylvania in L734, but when 
only a boy bad been brought with the rest of the family to the banks 
of the Yadkin in North Carolina. Here be grew up ; and as soon as 
he came of age be married, built a log but, and made a clearing, 
whereon to farm like the rest of bis backwoods neighbors. They all 
tilled their own clearings, guiding the plough among the charred 

Stumps left when the trees were chopped down and the land burned 
Over, and they were all, as a matter of course, hunters. With Boone 
hunting and exploration were passions, and the lonely life of the wil- 
derness, with its bold, wild freedom, the only existence for which he 
cared. He was a tall, spare, sinewy man, with eyes Like an eagle's 

and muscles that, never tired ; the toil and hardship of his life made 
no impress on his iron frame, unhurt by intemperance of any kind, 
and be lived for eighty-six years, a backwoods hunter to the end of 

his* days. His thoughtful, quiet, pleasant face, so often portrayed, is 
familiar to every one ; it was tin; face of a man who never blustered 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

or bullied, who would neither inflict nor suffer any wrong, and 
who had a limitless fund of fortitude, endurance, and indomitable 
resolution upon which to draw when fortune proved adverse. His 
self-command and patience, his daring, restless love of adventure, 
and, in time of danger, his absolute trust in his own powers and 
resources, all combined to render him peculiarly fitted to follow the 
career of which he was so fond. 

Roosevelt, from The Winning of the West. 

KINDS OF PREDICATE ATTRIBUTES. 

14. In Section 5, point out the words that denote qual- 
ities of objects. Most of the attributes there asserted of 
the subjects of thought are qualities. Study the folio wing- 
sentences, to learn what other ideas the predicate attribute 
may denote. Point out those that denote action ; condi- 
tion. 

(a) Bees are humming. 

(b) The waves are dancing. 

(c) That wonderful child is Helen Keller. 

(d) The cut flowers are withered. 

(e) The uncut flowers remain fresh. 

(f) Lafayette was a Frenchman. 

(g) The Washington Elm was in Cambridge, 
(h) It is decaying. 

(i) St. Paul's Cathedral is a famous church. 

(j) The builder was Christopher Wren. 

(k) The sky is blue. 

(1) Easter lilies are white. 

(m) Dutch shoes are of wood. 

(n) Dutch shoes are wooden. 

(o) That peculiar flower is an orchid. 

(p) Rembrandt was an artist. 

In sentence (c), what words tell what child it is, or identify the 
child? In sentence (o), what word is used to identify the flower ? 
A word used as a predicate attribute to identify the subject 
is called an attribute of identification. What word classifies 
Lafayette as to his nationality, or tells in what class to place him ? 
Rembrandt, as to his profession ? Such an attribute shows in 



KINDS OF PREDICATE ATTRIBUTES 9 

what class to place the subject, and is called an attribute of 
classification. In (n), what attribute is asserted of Dutch shoes ? 
Is the same attribute asserted in (in) ? By what words ? In (g), 
what attribute is asserted of the Washington Elm ? By what 
words ? It may take a group of -words to make the predi- 
cate attribute. Point out the words in the sentences that express 
attributes of color ; of location or position ; of identification ; of 
classification; of material. 

These predicate attributes — of quality, action, condition, iden- 
tification, classification, and material — are the commonest at- 
tributes. This list or any other list is but partial; and it is best 
for each pupil to name the attributes as he finds them. 

It should be understood that when a noun is used as a predicate 
attribute, all the attributes or qualities that together make up the 
idea named by the noun are asserted of the subject. In the sentence, 
" Jack is funny," only one attribute is asserted of " Jack." But in 
the sentence " Jack is a boy," all the attributes that together make 
up the idea of " boy " are asserted of "Jack"; for example, Jack 
is young, small, lively, talkative, boastful, generous, and all the other 
qualities that together make up the idea of a real boy. Nouns used 
to name attributes in most cases name an attribute of classification 
or identification ; as Helen Keller and Frenchman in the sen- 
tences above. (See Section 1.) 



EXERCISE. 

15. In the following sentences, select the subjects, pre- 
dicate attributes, and copulas. Tell what each of the 
attributes denotes. In studying the lesson it would be 
well to ask yourself these questions : — 

1. What is the sentence about? 

2. What names the subject of thought ? 

3. What does the sentence tell me about the subject of 

thought ? 

4. What word or words join the subject with the predi- 

cate attribute, and make the assertion ? 

The answer to the second question is the subject of the 
sentence ; the answer to the third is the attribute ; and the, 
answer to tbe fourth is the copula, 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

1. Cathedrals are impressive. 

2. The clouds are fleecy. 

3. A musical voice is a delight. 

4. These sentences seem short. 

5. The lesson is easy. 

6. The garden will be gay. 

7. Berries will be plentiful. 

8. The cloudy sky is sad and gray. 

9. The white birch is a beautiful tree. 

10. Violets and dandelions are in bloom. 

11. November woods are bare and still. 

12. An icy hand is on the land. 

13. Oliver Cromwell was an Englishman. 

14. That sweet-faced woman is Frances Willard. 

15. Truth is within ourselves. 

16. The year is at the spring. 

17. Day is at the morn. 

18. The lark is on the wing. 

19. God is in His world. 

20. Silence is a great peacemaker. 

21. Helen Hunt Jackson was the Indian's friend. 

22. " Ramona " is her greatest novel. 

23. The warmest coatos are of fur. 

24. The finest churches are of stone. 

25. The bird of Paradise is of glorious plumage. 

A GROUP OF WORDS AS PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 

16. In Section 15, tell which predicate attributes are 
expressed by a single word. Point out each group of 
words used to express the predicate attribute of the sen- 
tence. Tell which groups of words denote quality. Which 
denote position or location ? material ? condition ? identi- 
fication? The predicate attribute, then, may be a 
single word or a group of words. 

EXERCISE. 

17. Separate the sentences below into their three ele- 
ments : subject, copula, and predicate attribute. 



A GROUP OF WORDS AS THE SUBJECT 11 

Model. " Example is the school of mankind " is a sentence, 
because it is the expression of a complete thought in words. 

" Example " is the subject, because it names that of which some- 
thing is asserted. 

" The school of mankind " is the predicate attribute, because it 
names that which is asserted of the subject. 

"Is" is the copula, because it asserts the relation between the 
subject and the predicate attribute. 

Written Analysis. 



SUBJECT. 


COPULA. 


PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 


Example 


is 


the school of mankind. 


Edison 


is 


a great inventor. 



1. Edison is a great inventor. 

2. Mahogany is a beautiful wood. 

3. Florence Nightingale was a noble woman. 

4. Automobiles are a recent invention. 

5. Lowell was the son of a minister. 

6. Pennsylvania is the coal-bin of the United States. 

7. Rome was the capital of the world. 

8. Lew Wallace is the author of " Ben Hur." 

9. Shakespeare is the greatest author of all time. 

10. Gold is the standard of the world's money. 

11. Some questions are difficult to answer. 

12. Every flower is a hint of God's beauty. 

13. No good thing is failure. 

14. No bad thing is success. 

A GROUP OF WORDS AS THE SUBJECT. 

18. In the sentences of the preceding lessons, the sub- 
jects have been nouns or pronouns. Study the sentences 
in this lesson to find whether the subject is always a noun 
or a pronoun. 

(a) To be up and doing is a joy. 

(b) Whatever Abraham Lincoln said was earnest and sin- 

cere. 

(c) To feel an honest joy at the success of another is noble. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

In (a), of what is the assertion made that it is a joy? What 
words, then, express the subject of the thought ? Is there a noun in 
the subject ? In (b), the assertion is that something -was earnest 
and sincere. What ? Repeat the group of words used to express 
the subject of the thought. What does (c) assert is noble? What, 
then, is the subject of the sentence ? 

So, just as a group of words may form the predicate at- 
tribute of a sentence, a group of words may make the sub- 
ject of a sentence. 

EXERCISE. 

19. Give both the oral and the written analysis of the 
sentences below, following the model in Section 17. 

What is the sentence about ? 
"What is asserted of the subject ? 

What -word joins the subject with the predicate attri- 
bute ? 

1. Well begun is good. 

2. Well done is better. 

3. To catch fish in a tub is unsportsmanlike. 

4. What Washington did was wise. 

5. To guess and to know are two different things. 

6. Doing nothing for others is the undoing of ourselves. 

7. Not to weep over a dish of peeled onions is difficult. 

8. To gossip about one's neighbors is a common, but contemp- 

tible fault. 

9. To be angry with a door or a woodbox is boylike. 

10. The best preparation for good work to-morrow is to do good 

work to-day. 

11. To know all is to forgive all. 

EXERCISE. 

20. Write five sensible sentences, with copulas and 
predicate attributes, and with nouns as subjects. Write 
five more with groups of words as subjects. Be ready 

to separate these sentences into their three elements, 



COPULA AND PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE 13 

COPULA AND PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 

21. (a) The brook is murmuring. (f) The brook murmurs. 

(b) The waters are dancing. (g) The waters dance. 

(c) A storm -was raging. (h) A storm raged. 

(d) Twilight is deepening. (i) Twilight deepens. 

(e) The owl is hooting. (j) The owl hoots. 

In (a), (b), (c), (d), and (e), point out each copula and each pre- 
dicate attribute, two separate words in each sentence. Opposite each 
sentence is another which asserts the same predicate attribute of the 
same subject. In (f), the attribute, murmuring, is asserted of the 
brook just as truly as in (a). In (g), what is asserted of the sub- 
ject ? In (h) ? (i) ? (j) ? What one word, then, in each of the last 
five sentences, both asserts and tells what attribute is asserted ? 
Since each of these words is both copula and predicate attri- 
bute, it may be called a copula-attribute. 

The union of the copula with the predicate attribute 
gives a new type of sentence. So far the sentences have 
contained the three elements of a sentence sep- second Type 
arately, — subject, copula, and predicate attri- of Sentence 
bute. The three elements are to be found in these sen- 
tences of the second type as in the first ; but the differ- 
ence is this, — that in the second type of sentence the 
copula and the predicate attribute are united in one 
word. 
First Type. subject. copula. predicate attribute. 

The tide was rising. 

The wind is rising. 

Second Type. subject. copula- attribute. 

The tide rose. 

The wind rises. 

EXERCISE. 

22. Unite the copula and the predicate attribute of 
each of the following sentences into one word. Analyze 
the sentences you have made, using the following model. 



14 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Model. " The boy runs " is a sentence, because it is the expres- 
sion of a complete thought in words. 

" The boy " is the subject, because it names that of which some- 
thing is asserted. 

" Runs " is the copula-attribute, because it asserts and tells what 
is asserted of the subject. 



1. Mozart was composing. 

2. Raphael was painting. 

3. Angelo was designing. 

4. We are reciting. 

5. The tide was rising. 

6. Rain was falling. 

7. Washington was praying. 

8. Trees are growing. 

9. Maize is sprouting. 
10. The bells are ringing. 



11. The snow is melting. 

12. The church was burning. 

13. The fog was thickening. 

14. The whistle was blowing. 

15. Danger was threatening. 

16. The enemy was retreating. 

17. The settlers are returning. 

18. Men are working. 

19. Women were weeping. 

20. Duty is calling. 



VERBS. 

23. (a) The sky is clouded. 

(b) The clouds seem threatening. 

(c) The wind whistles. 

(d) The rain will be welcome. 

(e) The old man's hair is white. 

(f) He smiles. 

(g) His smile is sunny. 

(h) His journey's end seems near. 

All these sentences contain subject, copula, and predicate attribute. 
In two of the sentences given, the word that asserts also tells what 
is asserted. Read the two sentences, and point out the word in each 
that asserts and also contains the predicate attribute. In each of the 
other sentences, point out the word or the group of words that asserts 
the relation between the subject and the predicate attribute. Is it 
possible to make a sentence without a word that asserts ? A word 
used to assert, whether it does or does not contain the pre 
dicate attribute, is called a verb. 1 

In the sentences at the head of this lesson, which verbs are used 

1 Look in a dictionary for the derivation of the word verb. Do you 
know any reason why this name should be selected for the asserting- word 
of a sentence ? 



VERBS 15 

to unite the words denoting the subject and the predicate attri- 
bute ? 

When the principal use of a verb is that of copula, it is 
called a copulative verb. 

Most copulative verbs do some other work beside uniting the sub- 
ject and predicate attribute. Is, in its various forms, is the only- 
verb whose use may be solely to connect the subject and 
predicate attribute ; it is generally a pure copula. 

Seem in (b) does more than connect the subject and the predicate 
attribute ; it does not say that clouds are threatening. It makes a mod- 
ified assertion. So all copulative verbs except is do something more 
than connect subject and predicate attribute. But their principal 
work is to connect. For this reason they are called copulative verbs. 

In (c), what is the attribute asserted of the wind ? In (f), what 
attribute is asserted of the subject ? The verb in each of these sen- 
tences is both copula and predicate attribute. When the verb 
itself contains the predicate attribute, it is called an attribu- 
tive verb. 

Whenever the copula and the predicate attribute are different 
words, the verb is copulative. When they are united in one word, 
the verb is attributive. 

In which sentence do you find more than one word used to make 
the assertion ? A group of -words, then, may be used just like 
a single -word in making an assertion. Such a group is called 
a verb-phrase. 

A VERB IS A WORD THAT ASSERTS. 

A VERB-PHRASE IS A GROUP OF WORDS THAT ASSERTS. 
In saying that a verb is a word that asserts, it is intended 
to regard a question or a command as a kind of assertion. 

A COPULATIVE VERB IS ONE WHOSE PRINCIPAL USE IS THAT 
OF A COPULA. 

AN ATTRIBUTIVE VERB IS ONE THAT CONTAINS IN ITSELF A 
PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 

Verb-phrases may be copulative or attributive exactly the 
same as verbs. 

EXERCISE. 
24. Make a list of five copulative verbs ; of ten attribu- 
tive verbs. Write five sensible sentences containing copu- 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

lative verbs ; three containing attributive verbs. Do not 
use any of the verbs you have put in your lists. 

Is a sentence of the first or second type when a copulative verb is 
used ? Is it of the first type when an attributive verb is used ? 

EXERCISE. 

25. Tell the types of the following sentences. Classify 
the verbs as copulative or attributive. If attributive, tell 
what attribute is asserted of the subject. 

1. The violet is sweet. 

2. Pocahontas was an Indian girl. 

3. To do one's best is worthy. 

4. The cost of crown jewels seems fabulous. 

5. That great men do silly things at times is true. 

6. Robins run. 

7. Woodpeckers climb. 

8. The monkey laughs. 

9. The sun sets. 

10. The wind dies. 

11. The world seems silent. 

12. President Roosevelt works. 

13. He is a fighter. 

14. The horse is dead. 

15. The horse seems dead. 

16. The cock is crowing, 
The stream is flowing, 
The small birds twitter, 
The lake doth glitter, 

The green field sleeps in the sun. 

COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE VERBS. 

26. There are other ways of grouping, or classifying, 
verbs than as copulative and attributive. There is also 
another name for the predicate attribute. A brief review 
of a few points already learned will show the meaning of 
the new terms. 



COMPLEMENTS 17 

EXERCISE. 

27. Write in two groups the sentences in Section 25. 
In one group, write the sentences of the first type ; in the 
other, the sentences of the second type. 

Name the three elements that every sentence must contain. You 
have learned that not one of these can be omitted. What two ele- 
ments are combined in one word in the sentences of the second type ? 
What name is given to it as an element of the sentence ? In such 
sentences the verb alone makes a complete assertion about 
the subject. Such a verb is called a verb of complete predi- 
cation, or a complete verb. 

Point out the verb in each sentence of the first type. In these 
sentences, does the verb tell what is asserted of the subject ? In 
other words, does it contain the predicate attribute ? Read these 
sentences aloud, omitting all of the words that follow the verb. It 
is evident that each sentence then lacks one of the three necessary 
elements of every sentence : it has no predicate attribute. The 
verb alone does not make the complete assertion about the 
subject. Such a verb is called a verb of incomplete predi- 
cation, or an incomplete verb. Verb-phrases may be com- 
plete or incomplete the same as verbs. 

COMPLEMENTS. 

28. In the sentences used in the preceding exercise, 
point out the words used to complete the meaning of the 
incomplete verbs. 

It is plain that a third element must always be added to the in- 
complete verb to tell what is asserted of the subject. Since this 
element is a completer of the verb, it is called a complement. 

In all sentences of the first type, is the verb copulative or attribu- 
tive ? complete or incomplete ? Since in all sentences of this type 
the complement of the verb names an attribute of the subject, it is 
called an attribute complement. Up to this time, this element of 
a sentence has been called a predicate attribute. It is the same 
element under different names. 

Point out the attribute complements, or predicate attributes, in the 
sentences in Sections 5 and 25. 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

AN ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT IS AN ELEMENT OF A SEN- 
TENCE THAT COMPLETES THE ASSERTION MADE BY AN INCOM- 
PLETE VERB, AND NAMES AN ATTRIBUTE OF THE SUBJECT. 

EXERCISE. 

29. Analyze the sentences below, following the model 
in Section 17. Use the term attribute complement in- 
stead of predicate attribute. Next classify the verbs and 
verb-phrases as complete or incomplete, copulative or 
attributive. 

Is a copulative verb always incomplete ? 

1. Experience is expensive. 

2. The plays of Shakespeare are instructive. 

3. To talk with great men is a liberal education. 

4. Honesty is the best policy. 

5. Rubies are scarce. 

6. Good manners are a source of wealth. 

7. To study the stars is fascinating. 

8. What time we sleep is well spent. 

9. To use a dictionary is a sign of culture. 

10. Snow is delicate crystals. 

11. To cheat an ignorant man is dishonorable cowardice. 

12. The way was pathless and long. 

13. The goal was more dreary yet. 

14. Their only food was a pittance of Indian corn. 

15. The way was through the dense forest. 

THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 

30. (a) Many hands make light work. 

(b) March brings wind. 

(c) April brings showers. 

(d) April showers bring May flowers. 

(e) Longfellow wrote Hiawatha. 

(f) He loved children. 

(g) Morse invented the telegraph, 
(h) The farmer sows the seed. 

(i) He reaps the harvest. 

(j) The dead leaves fall. 

(k) The nightingale's notes close the eye of day. 



THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT 19 

In the sentences in this lesson, there is only one complete verb. 
Find it. Point out the incomplete verb in each of the other sen- 
tences. Show that each is an attributive verb. Tell what words are 
used to complete the meaning of each. Since the verb in each sen- 
tence contains the predicate attribute, the complement cannot be an 
attribute complement. Show that each of these complements names 
the receiver of the action asserted by the verb. Such a complement 
is called an object complement. 1 

AN OBJECT COMPLEMENT IS AN ELEMENT OF A SENTENCE 
THAT COMPLETES THE ASSERTION MADE BY AN INCOMPLETE 
VERB, AND NAMES THE RECEIVER OF THE ACTION. 

Note. — There are a few transitive verbs whose meaning is such 
that their object complements do not in the ordinary sense receive 
the action asserted; as in the sentences, "I have my lesson," "April 
brings flowers." In such sentences, however, the action which the 
verb asserts passes over to the object complement as it does in all 
other cases, and in a grammatical sense the object complement re- 
ceives it. 

A sentence containing subject, copula-attribute, and 

object complement is a sentence of the third 

. . Third Type 

type. The predicate of a sentence of the third of Sen- 

# tence. 

type is composed of copula-attribute and object 

complement. 

Third Type. 

copula- object 

subject. attribute. complement. 

The nightingale's notes close the eye of day. 

What elements make the first type of sentence ? the second ? 

EXERCISE. 

31. Write five sensible sentences of the first type. 
Find five sentences of the second type. Frame five sen- 
tences of the third type, in which the following words 
shall be used as object complements : honor, Cape Horn, 
the stars, rainbow, Alexander Hamilton. 

1 Look in a dictionary and learn the meaning- of the Latin words from 
which the word object is derived. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXEBCISE. 

32. Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. From this time the sentences of an exercise will 
not be of any one type. Look out for all kinds of sen- 
tences. 

Model. " The nightingale's notes close the eye of day " is a sen- 
tence, because . . . 

" The nightingale's notes " is the subject, because . . . 

" Close " is the copula-attribute, because . . . 

" The eye of day " is the object complement, because it completes 
the assertion made by an incomplete verb, and names the receiver of 
the action. 

Model for Written Analysts. 

Subject The nightingale's notes 

Copula-Attribute close 

Object Complement the eye of day. 

(In this section, and others throughout the book, more sentences 
are given for analysis than may be needed. Use only enough to fix 
the principles to be established.) 

1. Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence. 

2. The moon causes the tides. 

3. Edison invented the phonograph. 

4. Many persons inherit wealth. 

5. They are considered lucky. 

6. Wealth is a doubtful fortune. 

7. Gladstone was an eminent scholar. 

8. Pocahontas saved Captain John Smith. 

9. Louis XIV was a spendthrift. 

10. Health is man's greatest wealth. 

11. The real heroes of the war are the "great, brave, patient, 

nameless PEOPLE." 

12. The sweetest type of heaven is home. 

13. Every great thought alters the world. 

14. The top of honor is a slippery place. 

15. The unfinished is nothing. 

16. One spring wind unbinds the mountain snow. 

17. The great mind knows the power of gentleness. 

18. A small leak will sink a ship. 



TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 21 

19. Kindness shall win my love. 

20. The old clock of the town 
Strikes night's last hour. The morning's crown 
Touches the silence. 



TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

33. (a) The little boys will cull the cowslip posies. 

(b) The cowslip posies will be culled by the little boys. 

(c) Autumn paints the maples. 

(d) The maples are painted by Autumn. 

(e) The artist reveals beauty. 

(f) Beauty is revealed by the artist. 

(g) The bluebirds sing sweet songs of spring. 

(h) Sweet songs of spring are sung by the bluebirds. 

(i) Fresh winds purify the air. 

(j) The air is purified by fresh winds. 

Have both sentences of each pair the same meaning ? In both, is 
the action done by the same persons or things ? Show that each verb 
asserts an action received by an object In which sentence of each 
pair does the object complement name the receiver of the action ? 
In the other sentence, the same receiver of the same action is named 
by what element ? 

Since all these verbs assert actions received by objects, 
all are called transitive verbs. 1 In the sen- Transitive 
tences, the receiver of the action is named by Verbs - 
the subject or by the object complement. A verb is transi- 
tive, then, if the subject or the object complement names 
the receiver of the action asserted. 

Not all verbs assert action ; and of those that do, not 
all assert action received by an object. If a intra^. 
verb does not assert action received by an ob- tiveVerl)S - 
ject, it is not transitive, and is called an intransitive 
verb. Study the following sentences. 

1 Look in a dictionary for the primary meaning of the word transi* 
tire, 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(a) The laughing streams awake. 

(b) They were sleeping. 

(c) Our mother was a beautiful girl. 

(d) Her word is truth. 

(e) A loving spirit attracts. 

(f) Friends cheer. 

(g) Coleridge talked, 
(h) Parrots chatter. 

Point out the five verbs that assert action. Is the action asserted 
by any one of them received by an object ? Point out the three 
verbs that do not assert action. Are these verbs, then, transitive or 
intransitive ? 

A TRANSITIVE VERB IS ONE THAT ASSERTS AN ACTION RE- 
CEIVED BY AN OBJECT, WHICH IS NAMED BY THE SUBJECT OR 
THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 

(See note to definition of object complement.) 

AN INTRANSITIVE VERB IS ONE THAT DOES NOT ASSERT AN 
ACTION RECEIVED BY AN OBJECT. 

Verb-phrases may be transitive or intransitive the same 
as verbs. 

When the subject names the doer of the action, the 
voice verb is said to be in the active voice. 

passiye. nd When the subject names the receiver of the ac- 

tion, the verb is said to be in the passive voice. 

EXERCISE. 

34. In the following sentences, note the two uses of 
the same verb. 

(a) The fire burned in the grate. 

(b) The fire burned the child's fingers. 

(c) The child's fingers were burned by the fire. 

(d) Millet painted. 

(e) He painted the Angelus. 

(f) The Angelus was painted by Millet. 

(g) Shakespeare wrote. 

(h) He wrote the world's greatest dramas. 

(i) The world's greatest dramas were written by Shakespeare. 



TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 23 

In which of the sentences are the verbs in the active voice ? in the 
passive voice ? Why ? 

Which verbs are transitive ? Which intransitive ? Give reason 
in each case. The use, then, is what makes the verb transitive 
or intransitive. 

In the active voice, is a transitive verb complete ? Is it attribu- 
tive ? Is an intransitive verb always complete ? Is a copulative 
verb ever complete ? May an attributive verb be either transitive 
or intransitive ? Show by examples that your answers are correct. 



EXERCISE. 

35. Classify the verbs in the following sentences as 
copulative or attributive, complete or incomplete, transi- 
tive or intransitive. If a verb is transitive, tell in which 
voice it is. 

1. Wagner wrote " Lohengrin." 

2. Braddock was defeated by the Indians. 

3. He was a haughty man. 

4. He scorned Washington's advice. 

5. King John became very cruel. 

6. The little princes were smothered in the Tower. 

7. Arthur died in a castle in France. 

8. Music refines the soul. 

9. Sir Francis Drake sailed round the world. 

10. Many sonatas were composed by Beethoven. 

11. Beethoven became deaf in middle life. 

12. Mozart wrote his first music at the age of five. 

13. His last great piece was rehearsed before him on the night of 

his death. 

14. Most great composers have been poor. 

15. Their pains and pleasures are heard in their music. 

16. The orient sun scattered the morning mists. 

17. King Alfred watched the cakes in the peasant's house. 

18. Ill habits gather by unseen degrees, 

As brooks make rivers, rivers run to seas. 

19. Our thoughts are heard in heaven. 

20. Ill deeds are doubled with an evil word. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

STUDY OF FORMS OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. 

36. (a) Morse invented the telegraph. 

(b) The telegraph was invented by Morse. 

(c) The Christmas message teaches brotherhood. 

(d) Brotherhood is taught by the Christmas message. 

(e) The sun cheers the whole world. 

(f) The whole world is cheered by the sun. 

(g) A small force held Fort Sumter. 

(h) Fort Sumter was held by a small force. 

(i) Birds build wonderful nests. 

(J) Wonderful nests are built by birds. 

Read each sentence in which the verb is in the passive voice. 
Read the group of words denoting the doer of the action asserted 
by each verb in the passive voice. What is the first word of each 
group ? Read each sentence in which the verb is in the active voice. 
What element of the sentence names the doer of the action when 
the verb is in the active voice ? 

In (a), (c), (e), (g), and (i), the verbs are all in the active voice. 
With these verbs, what element names the receiver of the action ? 
In (b), (d), (f), (h), and (j), the verbs are all in the passive voice. 
With these verbs, what element names the receiver of the action ? 

In Section 25, are there any intransitive attributive verbs that 
assert action ? Which ? Does the subject of each of these sentences 
name the doer of the action ? Then is the verb in the active voice ? 
Can you change the verbs in Section 25 to the passive voice ? 

A VERB IS IN THE ACTIVE VOICE WHEN ITS SUBJECT NAMES 
THE DOER OF THE ACTION ASSERTED. 

A VERB IS IN THE PASSIVE VOICE WHEN ITS SUBJECT NAMES 
THE RECEIVER OF THE ACTION ASSERTED. 

All transitive verbs may be used in both the active and 
the passive voice. Intransitive attributive verbs asserting 
actions may be in the active voice ; but they can never be in 
the passive voice. 

EXERCISE. 

37. Re- write the sentences (k), (1), (m), (V), and (o), 
changing the verb to the passive VQJoe. Tell wjiat other 
changes you have made. 



THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT 25 

(k) The cat in gloves catches no mice. 

(1) A copy of Wordsworth's poems influenced Bryant's whole 

life, 
(m) Reading Burns influenced Whittier's life, 
(n) Lowell's father planted many elms. 
(o) Their branches now shade the broad street. 

When a sentence with the verb in the active voice is 
changed to a sentence with the verb in the passive voice, 
the object complement is usually made the subject ; and 
the doer of the action is expressed by the group of words 
introduced by the word by. 

EXERCISE. 

38. Form sentences having these words in the active 
voice : love, will expel, has entertained, had carried, 
sank, criticise, shall lead, teaches, lowered, defeated. 

Change the sentences you have formed to sentences 
containing the same verbs in the passive voice. 

EXERCISE. 

39. Write sentences using the following words as ob- 
ject complements. Write another set of sentences using 
the same nouns as subjects. Do not have these two sets 
of sentences express the same thoughts. Longfellow, 
courage, snow, words, hunting, growth, education, 
branches, parrots, worth. 



THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT. 

40. The following sentences show that the meaning of 
a sentence may be changed by changing the order of the 
words. In one sentence of each group as given below is 
an element not yet studied. 



(a) Tom Sawyer painted the fence white. 

(b) Tom Sawyer painted the white fence. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(c) Spring rains wash the gardens clean. 

(d) Spring rains wash the clean gardens. 

(e) Snow turns the brown fields white. 

(f) Snow turns the brown white fields. 

(g) A smile makes a sad heart glad, 
(h) A smile makes a glad sad heart, 
(i) David anointed Solomon king, 
(j) David anointed King Solomon. 

Do the two sentences of each group contain the same words ? 
Have they the same meaning ? Which sentence, (a) or (b), asserts 
that the fence was white as a result of the painting ? Which that 
it was white before it was painted ? What word in (c) and (d) de- 
notes the attribute of the gardens ? Which of the two sentences 
tells that this attribute is a result of the washing ? Show that the 
sentences (f) and (h) make impossible assertions. Show that the 
attribute of the object complement in (e) and in (g) is a result of 
the action expressed by the verb. Does (i) or (j) state a fact ? 
Show that one of the statements is untrue. 

If a word names an attribute of an object complement, 

and this attribute is the result of the action 
Objective . 

Compie- asserted by the verb, it is called an objective 
ment. J 

complement. 

Two questions must be answered to determine whether 
a word is an objective complement : (1) Does the word 
name an attribute of the object complement ? (2) 
Is this attribute the result of the action named by the 
verb ? If the word fulfils both these conditions, it is an 
objective complement. 

(a) I found the boy tired. 

(b) The work had made the boy tired. 

In both these sentences, " tired " is an attribute of " the 
boy," the object complement. In (a), the attribute" tired" 
is not the result of the action named by the verb ; there- 
fore it is not an objective complement. In (b), the 
attribute is the result of the action named by the verb ; 
therefore it is an objective complement. 



THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT 



27 



(c) Adversity made him humble. 

(d) Adversity (made humble) him. 

(e) Adversity humbled him. 

In (c) the verb " made " alone does not express the 
idea of the sentence. " Adversity made him " is not at 
all the thought intended. The verb " made " with the 
objective complement " humble " expresses the action 
upon him. This is seen in (d). This is just one action 
and can be expressed in one word, as it is in (e). So, 
too, the former sentence could be made to read " The 
work tired him," instead of " The work made him tired." 

AN OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT IS AN ELEMENT OF A SENTENCE 
THAT NAMES AN ATTRIBUTE OF THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT, 
RESULTING FROM THE ACTION ASSERTED BY THE VERB. 



41. The objective complement is another ele- 



Fourth 



ment in a sentence, and gives us the fourth type Type of 



of sentence. 


' o 




Sentence. 




COPULA- 


OBJECT 


OBJECTIVE 


SUBJECT. 


ATTRIBUTE. 


COMPLEMENT. 


COMPLEMENT. 


Adversity 


made 


him 


humble. 


Congress 


rendered 


the plan 


useless. 


The death of the 








queen 


made 


Edward VII 


king. 



What are the other types of sentences ? When there is an objec- 
tive complement in a sentence, is the verb transitive or intransitive ? 
copulative or attributive ? Can there be an objective complement 
without an object complement ? What three elements form the 
predicate of a sentence of the fourth type ? 



EXERCISE. 

42. Analyze the sentences below according to the 
model. 

Model. "Adversity made him humble " is a sentence, because . . . 

" Adversity " is the subject, because . . . 

" Made " is the copula-attribute, because . . . 

" Him " is the object complement, because . . . 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

" Humble " is an objective complement, because it names an attri- 
bute of the object complement resulting from the action asserted by 
the verb. 

Written Analysis. 
Subject Adversity 

Copula-Attribute made 

Object Complement him 

Objective Complement humble 

1. He pumped the well dry. 

2. The boy bent the stick straight. 

3. Good fortune has made him a fool. 

4. True hope is swift. 

5. Gentians roll their fringes tight. 

6. Content makes poor men rich. 

7. Discontent makes rich men poor. 

8. The evening painted the snow a golden red. 

9. The mother made the child her idol. 

10. The people elected Johnson vice-president. 

11. The death of Lincoln made him president. 

12. Morning's laugh sets all the crags alight. 

13. A good carpenter planes boards smooth. 

TYPES OF SENTENCES. 

43. Write a sensible sentence of each of the four types. 

What elements are necessary to form the first type of sentence ? 
the second ? the third ? the fourth ? What kind of verb is in the 
first ? the second ? the third ? the fourth ? What elements are 
necessary in every sentence ? 

EXERCISE 

44. Classify the following sentences according to the 
type, and give the elements of each which make it of the 
type you name. 

Classify the verbs as complete or incomplete, transitive 
or intransitive, copulative or attributive. 

1. A horse is a fine lady among animals. 

2. The voyage of the Mayflower proved a stormy one. 

3. The surf ran high. 



THE PREDICATE 29 

4. Iron is a manly metal. 

5. John van Eyck was the inventor of oil-painting. 

6. Nettle-seed needs no sowing. 

7. God made all pleasures innocent. 

8. A beautiful eye makes silence eloquent. 

9. An enraged eye makes beauty deformed. 

10. Kindness is the sunshine of the spiritual world. 

11. Education begins the gentleman. 

12. Reading, good company, and reflection finish him. 

13. The indulgence of revenge makes men savage and cruel. 

14. The greatest of virtues is common-sense. 

15. The day seems long. 

16. I am the very pink of courtesy. 

17. Hope lives. 

18. The jay, the rook, the daw, 
Aid the full concert. 

19. The love-lorn nightingale mourneth. 

20. A thing of beauty is a joy forever ; 
Its loveliness increases. 

21. I crown the winter king. 

22. Mont Blanc is crowned monarch of mountains. 



THE PREDICATE. 

45. You have learned that in every sentence there must 
be a subject, and there must be an assertion about the sub- 
ject. Recall the various forms of the assertion in different 
sentences. 

Write a sentence in which the assertion about the sub- 
ject contains only the two necessary elements, a copula 
and a predicate attribute. Write a second sentence in 
which the assertion contains not only these two necessary 
elements, but a third, an object complement. Write a 
third sentence in which the assertion contains not only 
these three elements, but also a fourth, an objective com- 
plement. One term, the predicate, is used for all the 
various forms of the assertion. 

Whatever is needed to make an assertion about a sub- 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

ject, whether (1) copula and predicate attribute, or (2) 
copula-attribute, or (3) copula-attribute and object com- 
plement, or (4) copula-attribute, object complement, and 
The Pre objective complement, — the whole assertion 
dicate. forms what is called the predicate of the sen- 

tence. In other words, the predicate includes both the 
asserting word and all the words telling what is asserted 
of the subject. 

SUBJECT. PREDICATE. 

1st type. Subject Copula Predicate Attribute 

2d type. Subject Copula- Attribute 

3d type. Subject Copula-Attribute Object Complement 

4th type. Subject Copula- Attribute ] _, J . . ] „ J . 

J r J r ( Complement ( Complement. 

THE PREDICATE OF A SENTENCE IS THAT PART OF IT WHICH 
BOTH ASSERTS AND TELLS WHAT IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT. 

EXERCISE. 

46. Separate the following sentences into subject and 
predicate. Tell the elements of the predicate. Then name 
the type of sentence to which it belongs. 

1. The storm swept the valleys clean. 

2. Mountains of childish grief are molehills of age. 

3. The rippling brook turns the mill-wheel. 

4. The worst wheel of the cart makes the most noise. 

5. Babbling streams are shallow. 
(3. Small clouds are sailing. 

7. The rain is over and gone. 

8. The very hairs of your head are numbered. 

9. A close mouth catches no flies. 

10. Righteousness and peace have kissed each other. 

11. America was a land of wonder. 

12. The rugged wilderness offered a stern and hard-won inde- 

pendence. 

13. The wilderness of waves met the wilderness of woods. 

14. They named the river the River of May. 

15. The frightened Indians had fled. 



REVIEW OF DEFINITIONS 31 

16. The pressing question was how they were to subsist. 

17. The soldier sheathed his sword. 

18. The most prominent feature of their worship was sun-worship. 

19. The snow shall be their winding-sheet. 

20. Every turf beneath their feet 

Shall be a soldier's sepulchre. 

REVIEW OF DEFINITIONS. 

47. A sentence is the expression of a complete thought 
in words. 

The subject of a sentence names that of -which something 
is asserted. 

The predicate attribute names that which is asserted of 
the subject. 

The copula is the word or group of words that asserts 
the relation between the subject and the predicate attri- 
bute. 

A copula-attribute is a word or group of words that has 
the uses of both copula and predicate attribute. 

The predicate of a sentence is that part of it which both 
asserts and tells what is asserted of the subject. 

A complement is an element of a sentence that completes 
the assertion made by an incomplete verb. 

An attribute complement is an element of a sentence that 
completes the assertion made by an incomplete verb, and 
names an attribute of the subject. 

An object complement is ah element of a sentence that 
completes the assertion made by an incomplete verb, and 
names the receiver of the action. 

An objective complement is an element of a sentence that 
names an attribute of the object complement, resulting from 
the action asserted by the verb. 

A noun is a word that names a subject of thought. 

A common noun is a word that names any one of a class. 

A proper noun is a word that names an individual to dis- 
tinguish it from others of the class to which it belongs. 

A pronoun is a word that represents a subject of thought, 
but does not name it. 

A verb is a word that asserts. 

A verb-phrase is a group of words that asserts. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A copulative verb or verb-phrase is one whose principal 
use in the sentence is that of a copula. 

An attributive verb or verb-phrase is one that contains in 
itself a predicate attribute. 

A complete verb or verb-phrase is one that requires no 
complement to complete its meaning. 

An incomplete verb or verb-phrase is one that requires a 
complement to complete its meaning. 

A transitive verb or verb-phrase is one that asserts an 
action received by an object which is named by the subject 
or the object complement. 

An intransitive verb or verb-phrase is one that does not 
assert an action received by an object. 

A verb is in the active voice when its subject names the 
doer of the action asserted. 

A verb is in the passive voice when its subject names the 
receiver of the action asserted. 

MODIFIERS. 

48. You have learned to separate sentences into their 
elements, and to classify them according to their type. 
The next step is to separate these elements into parts, to 
find how they are made. 

(a) The lashing billows made a long report. 

(b) The setting sun 
Slowly descended. 

If sentence (a) be stripped to its bare necessary elements, it will 
read billows made report. Write these three words, and above 
each write the name of the element. What other words are used in 
the full sentence to modify, or change, the meaning of these bare 
elements? Which word tells the kind of billows? The makes 
lashing billows more definite. What two words modify the mean- 
ing of the object complement report ? Read the two bare elements 
of sentence (b). Tell what words modify, or change, the meaning 
of each. Slowly tells how the sun descended. It modifies the 
attributive idea in the verb. 

A word that modifies the meaning of another word in 
a sentence is called a modifier. 



MODIFIERS 33 

In (a), the complete subject of the sentence is not 
named until all the words, "The lashing billows," are 
used. The complete subject of (b) is " The 
setting sun." All the words that together name and Bare 
that of which something is asserted are called 
the complete subject. The one word which, stripped of 
its modifiers, forms the basis of the complete subject is 
called the bare subject. Give the complete subjects of 
the sentences in this lesson. 

All the words in the assertion about the subject — the 
words that assert and those that tell what is 
asserted — are called the complete predicate, and Bare 
The elements of the complete predicate, stripped 
of modifiers, are included in what is called the bare 
predicate. 

EXERCISE. 

49. In the following sentences, point out the modifiers, 
and tell what element of the sentence is modified by each. 

1. Small courtesies sweeten life. 

2. Small cheer and great welcome make a very merry feast. 

3. A thin meadow is soon mowed. 

4. The ripest fruit falls first. 

5. Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. 

6. I planted an old, dry, white, fairy seed. 

7. Its blossoms were magic golden flowers. 

8. The ripened fruit was a yellow jack-o'-lantern. 

9. One plant bore a very large Thanksgiving pie. 

EXERCISE. 

50. Find or make sentences with bare predicates of the 
following form : (1) an unmodified copula and predicate 
attribute ; (2) an unmodified copula-attribute ; (3) an 
unmodified copula-attribute and object complement ; and 
(4) an unmodified copula-attribute, object complement, 
and objective complement. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Frame definitions of complete subject, bare subject, 
complete predicate, and bare predicate. Give examples 
of each. 

EXERCISE. 

51. Analyze the following sentences according to this 
model, and those previously given. 

Model. " The setting sun slowly descended " is a sentence. 

The complete subject is "The setting sun." 

The complete predicate is " slowty descended." 

The bare subject is " sun," modified by the words " The " and 
" setting." 

The bare predicate is "descended," a copula-attribute. The sen- 
tence is, therefore, of the second type. 

The copula-attribute is modified by the word " slowly." 

1. Fame is very cheap. 

2. The gentle dew refreshes the parched grass. 

3. Great men are sincere. 

4. God's glory is his goodness. 

5. A constant friend is rare. 

6. Evil news rides post. 

7. An undevout astronomer is mad.. 

8. A free country life makes strong, true men. 

9. A lazy man is a bad man. 

10. Guilt has quick ears. 

11. Pride is seldom delicate. 

12. The lonely pine waves its sombre boughs. 

13. Friendship is a sheltering tree. 

14. A clear conscience is a soft pillow. 

15. A sunny spirit quickly dispels angry frowns. 

ADJECTIVES. 

52. Modifiers are divided into groups, or classes, ac- 
cording to their use. All the modifiers indicated by. special 
type in the following sentences belong to the same class. 

(a) Grant, determined and persevering, had carried on a vigor- 

ous, daring, and offensive campaign. 

(b) These victories caused much suffering and the loss of many- 

lives. 



ADJECTIVES 35 

(c) He was brave and strong. 

(d) The still, warm, misty, dreamy Indian summer cannot be 

truly painted. 

(e) Unjust gains give short-lived pleasures. 

(f) The Father of Waters is calm and untroubled. 

(g) It is deep and broad. 

What three words in (a) describe the campaign ? What two 
words describe Grant ? What words in (d) describe summer ? All 
these words, then, are modifiers of nouns. They are called 
adjectives. 

What words in (f) are attribute complements ? What do they 
describe ? They are adjectives, because they describe a noun. 

What words are attribute complements in (c) ? in (g) ? Whom 
do brave and strong describe ? What do deep and broad de- 
scribe ? These words are used to describe objects repre- 
sented by pronouns. They are also adjectives. 

The adjectives determined, persevering, vigorous, daring, 
offensive, brave, strong, deep, and broad, and the other modi- 
fiers named, all describe some object. They express qualities. 

In (b), there are modifiers of nouns which do not describe. They 
do, however, affect the meaning of nouns. If we should say, " Vic- 
tories caused suffering and loss of lives," the meaning of the nouns 
would be indefinite with respect to amount and number. The 
words much and many add to the meaning of the nouns, and make 
it more definite. And the word these limits the application of 
victories to definite successes. In the same way The is a modifier 
of Father of "Waters, definitely pointing it out. These words, 
much, many, these, and the, are modifiers. Since they modify the 
meaning of nouns, they are adjectives. 

AN ADJECTIVE IS A WORD THAT MODIFIES THE MEANING OF 
A NOTJN OR PRONOUN. 

In the sentences at the beginning of this lesson, point 
out the adjectives that stand before the words they mod- 
ify ; those that follow the noun or pronoun modified ; those 
that are used as attribute complements, coming after the 
copula. Find in your readers sentences containing adjec- 
tives. Where in the sentence are adjectives most commonly 
placed ? 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

An adjective is very often used as an attribute comple- 
ment. When it is so used, it is by many called a predi- 
cate adjective. 

EXERCISE. 

53. In the following paragraph, select the nouns, pro- 
nouns, and adjectives. Tell the word which each pronoun 
represents, and what word each adjective modifies. 

(The word " what " is a pronoun.) 

In a remote village among some wild hills in the province of Lor- 
raine, there lived a countryman whose name was Jacques d'Arc. He 
had a daughter, Joan of Arc, who was at this time in her twentieth 
year. She had been a solitary girl from her childhood ; she had often 
tended sheep and cattle for whole days where no human figure was 
seen or human voice heard ; and she had often knelt, for hours to- 
gether, in the gloomy, empty, little village chapel, looking up at the 
altar, and at the dim lamp burning before it, until she fancied that 
she saw shadowy figures standing there, and even that she heard 
them speak to her. The people in that part of France were very 
ignorant and superstitious, and they had many ghostly tales to tell 
about what they had dreamed, and what they saw among the lonely 
hills when the clouds and mists were resting on them. So they easily 
believed that Joan saw strange sights, and they whispered among 
themselves that angels and spirits talked to her. 

Dickens, from A Child's History of England. 

ADVERBS. 

54. Not all modifiers are adjectives. Most of those 
in the following sentences may be grouped in a different 
class because of their different use. 

(a) A brave man never dies. 

(b) Books are our most steadfast friends. 

(c) Comfort is tedious when it lasts too long. 

(d) Look upward, not downward. 

(e) No truly great man ever thought himself great. 

(f ) Nothing is more powerful than silence. 

(g) In solitude we are least alone, 
(h) The days pass very rapidly. 



ADVERBS 37 

In (a), what word modifies the meaning of the verb dies ? It adds 
an idea of time. In (d), what words add to the meaning of the verb 
look by indicating direction ? A word that modifies the mean- 
ing of a verb is called an adverb. 1 

What word in (b) modifies the adjective steadfast ? the adjective 
great in (e) ? the adjective powerful in (f) ? the adjective alone 
in (g) ? These words are also called adverbs. 

What adverb in (c) modifies the verb lasts ? This adverb is 
itself modified by a word that intensifies its meaning. What is that 
word? In the last sentence, tell why rapidly is an adverb. What 
word adds to the meaning of the adverb rapidly ? These words, 
too and very, modifiers of adverbs, are also called adverbs. 
Adverbs may modify adjectives and other adverbs as well 
as verbs. 

Adjectives and adverbs are themselves modifiers ; so a 
word that modifies a modifier is an adverb. The defini- 
tion of an adverb is : 

AN ADVERB IS A WORD THAT MODIFIES THE MEANING OF A 
VERB OR A MODIFIER. 

EXERCISE. 

55. In the following sentences, select the adverbs, tell- 
ing what each modifies, and whether the word modified 
is a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. Analyze the first 
seven sentences. 

1. Formerly men printed their books by hand. 

2. The ignorant foreigner finds too much freedom here. 

3. A wise man will always be a Christian. 

4. Youth comes but once in a lifetime. 

5. The majestic river floated on. 

6. Truth never hurts the teller. 

7. The tongue is ever turning to the aching tooth. 

8. Swing low, sweet chariot ! 

9. I never was on the dull, tame shore, 

But I loved the great sea more and more, 
And backward flew to its billowy breast. 

1 See dictionary for meaning of the word adverb. Does the word seem 
suitable ? 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

10. The kingbird is most frequently seen on a fence or a dead 
twig of a tree, where leaves do not come in the way of his 
sight. He stands very upright, like a hawk or an owl, and, 
though as quiet as if he had nothing to do, he is keenly 
awake to every movement about him, and every few minutes 
he dashes into the air, seizes a passing insect, and returns to 
the spot from which he started. While his mate is sitting, he 
usually establishes himself near the nesting tree, and spends 
hour after hour in this apparently monotonous way, varying 
it only to relieve her by watching the nest, and thus giving 
her an opportunity to seek food for herself. 

Olive Thorne Miller. 

PHRASES. 
56. Study the following groups of words. 

(a) with fading music 

(b) in dull, cold marble 

(c) will have been studying 

(d) to follow 

Are the words of each group related in meaning ? Does a single 
one of the expressions contain a subject and a predicate ? Such a 
group of words is called a phrase. 

The difference between a sentence and a phrase is this : 
a sentence always has a subject and a predicate, and makes 
an assertion; a phrase never has a subject and a predicate, 
and does not make an assertion. 

Frame sentences containing each of the phrases above. In your 
sentences, what does the phrase (a) modify ? Is it, then, used like 
an adjective or an adverb ? What does (b) modify ? Is it used 
like an adjective or an adverb ? In your sentence, is (d) used as 
a noun, an adjective, or an adverb ? "We find, then, that phrases 
are used as nouns, or verbs, or adjectives, or adverbs. 

In the following expressions, separate the phrases from 
the sentences. 

(e) of red apples (h) for eating 

(f) apples are red (i) they are to be eaten 

(g) to be eaten ( j ) on the day appointed 



USES OF PHRASES 39 

(k) along the homeward way 

(1) the school-children loitered along the homeward way 

A PHRASE IS A GROUP OF RELATED WORDS WITHOUT SUBJECT 
AND PREDICATE, AND HAVING THE USE OF A SINGLE WORD. 

USES OF PHRASES. 

57. You have learned that word modifiers are grouped 
in different classes according to their use. They may be 
adjectives or adverbs. Phrase modifiers are classified in 
the same way. 

(a) With fine bread of wheat was the leper fed. 

(b) With fine wheaten bread was the leper fed. 

(c) Persons that live in glass houses should move with care. 

(d) Persons that live in houses of glass should move carefully. 

(e) Cinderella's sisters treated her shabbily. 

(f ) They treated her in a shabby manner. 

(g) That plant or animal is healthy that is in a healthy con- 
dition. 

(h) The coloring of tulips is extremely brilliant, 
(i) The coloring is brilliant in the highest degree. 

What phrase in (a) means just the same as wheaten in (b) ? 
What phrase in (g) means the same as an adjective in (g) ? Have 
both adjective and phrase the same use ? Since both these phrases 
are used as adjectives, they are called adjective phrases. 
There are other adjective phrases in these sentences. Find them. 
Tell what noun or pronoun each modifies. 

In (d), what adverb modifies move ? What phrase in (c) has 
the same meaning and use ? What adverb in (e) modifies the verb 
treated ? What phrase in (f) has the same meaning and use ? 
Since these phrases modify verbs, they are called adverbial 
phrases. 

In (h), what adverb modifies the adjective brilliant ? What 
phrase in (i) has the same meaning and use ? Since this phrase 
is used to modify a modifier, it is called an adverbial phrase. 

A phrase used to modify a noun or a pronoun is an adjec- 
tive phrase. 

A phrase used to modify a verb or a modifier is an adver- 
bial phrase. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE. 

58. Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. 

Model. " Idleness is the source of much evil " is a sentence, be- 
cause. . . . 

The complete subject is " Idleness." 

The complete predicate is " is the source of much evil." 

The bare subject is " Idleness " ; it is unmodified. 

The bare predicate is " is source," composed of the copula " is " 
and the attribute complement " source." The sentence, therefore, 
is of the first type. 

The attribute complement " source " is modified by the adjective 
" the " and the adjective phrase " of much evil." 

Model for Written Analysis. 



Complete Subject 
Complete Predicate 
Bare Subject 
Bare Predicate 




Idleness 

is the source of much evil. 

Idleness 

is source 


Copula 

Attribute Complement 

Modifiers of Attribute Complement 


is 

source 

the of much evil 



1. Men of great wealth do much good. 

2. Lafayette came at a fortunate time. 

3. Happiness is the natural flower of duty. 

4. A treaty is the promise of a nation. 

5. A good intention clothes itself with sudden power. 

6. Youth is full of pleasance. 

7. Age is full of care. 

8. The man with a violin is a bore to the man with a flute. 

9. The frost has bitten the heel of the going year. 

10. Opportunities never nibble twice at the same hook. 

11. The fields look rough with hoary dew. 

12. Upon the grass the frost lies white. 

13. The world is still deceived by ornament. 

14. A little nonsense, now and then, 
Is relished by the wisest men. 

15. The wild November comes at last 

Beneath a veil of rain. 



PHRASES IN THE PREDICATE 41 

16. The searching eye of heaven is hid 
Behind the globe. 

17. The vain young Night 
Trembles o'er her own beauty in the sea. 

18. Upon a pasture stone, 
Against the fading west, 
A small bird sings alone. 

PHRASES IN THE PREDICATE. 

59. Sometimes a phrase in the predicate is a predicate 
attribute ; sometimes it is an adverbial modifier. To tell 
in which way it is used, one needs to think carefully of 
the meaning of the sentence. 

(a) The nest is high. 

(b) The nest is in the tree. 

(c) The birds are playing in the tree. 

(d) The teacher is present. 

(e) She is in the room. 

(f) We march in the room. 

(g) God is omnipresent, 
(h) God is in His world. 
(i) He lives in His world. 

(j) The mountains seem distant. 

(k) They are far in the distance. 

(1) I see their snowy peaks in the distance. 

(m) A traitor dies unwept, unhonored, and unsung. 

(n) A traitor is without honor in his death. 

(o) He has lived without honor. 

(p) He is buried without tears. 

(q) The President is friendly to all. 

(r) The President is of a friendly spirit. 

(s) Beethoven's early home was in Germany. 

(t) He moved to Austria. 

In (a), what is the predicate attribute ? This word names an 
attribute of place, or position. In (b), what phrase shows the posi- 
tion of the nest ? The phrase is, then, just as truly an attribute of 
position, So the phrase is the predicate attribute of the sentence. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The same phrase has a different use in (c). If the phrase were 
omitted in (b), would any assertion be made about the nest ? 
What necessary element would be omitted ? If the phrase were 
omitted in (e), would an assertion be made ? The predicate attri- 
bute is expressed in the copula-attribute are playing. .What phrase 
tells where they were playing ? Since it modifies a verb, it is an 
adverbial phrase. 

What is the predicate attribute in (d) ? What phrase has the 
same use in (e) ? Show that the same words form an adverbial 
phrase in (f). Show that the adjective omnipresent is a neces- 
sary element of the sentence (g). What is the name of the ele- 
ment ? Show that the predicate attribute of (i) is contained in the 
verb. How, then, is the phrase in His world used in (i) ? 

Point out all the single words used as predicate attributes in these 
sentences. Point out all the phrases having the same meaning and 
use, and show that each is the predicate attribute of a sentence. 

Point out all the adverbial phrases, and tell what verb each modi- 
fies. 

This rule may generally be followed : When the verb 
is attributive, a phrase in the predicate is a modifier ; 
when the verb is copulative, a phrase in the predicate is 
the predicate attribute. As there are but few copulative 
verbs, a close watch upon sentences containing any of them 
will guard against mistakes. 

EXERCISE. 

60. Write five sentences containing copulative verbs 
completed by phrases. Write five sentences containing 
attributive verbs modified by phrases. 

EXERCISE. 

61. Analyze the following sentences according to the 
models already used. 

1. Washington is the capital of the United States, 

2. Washington is in the District of Columbia. 

3. Washington is situated on the Potomac. 

4. Cotton is grown in the South. 

5. The negroes are in the South. 



PREPOSITIONS 43 

6. Much of our fruit comes from California, 

7. Pasadena is in the fruit district of California. 

8. Our biggest timber comes from Washington and Oregon. 

9. Vast forests of fir are in Washington. 

10. Alaska is a mining-camp. 

11. Alaska contains many mining-camps. 

12. In the mining-camps of Alaska are many men from the United 

States. 

13. They live in the camps. 

14. To-day is here. 

15. To-morrow will never be here. 

16. Here is darkness. 

17. Beyond the mountain is light. 

18. Here darkness overtook us. 

19. In the morning we shall come into the light. 

20. The criticism was given for our good. 

21. Criticism is for our good. 

22. Truth is within ourselves. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

62. The purpose of this lesson is to separate phrases 
into their elements, and to learn the use of a class of 
words not yet studied. 

(a) My naked feet found dewy pathways through the wheat. 

(b) The dust was dimpled by the rain. 

(c) The flowers were refreshed by it. 

(d) The bloom was on the clover. 

(e) The blue was in the sky. 

(f) Hope is strong in the morning. 

(g) The world is a picture-book to children. 

Write in a column the phrases used in these sentences. Under- 
line the nouns and pronouns in these phrases. Does each phrase 
have either a noun or a pronoun for its principal word ? After each 
phrase write the little word with which it begins. Each of these 
little words connects the noun or the pronoun in the phrase with the 
word the phrase modifies. Each also shows the relation of the noun 
or pronoun to the word which the phrase modifies. This is clearly 
seen by changing these little words in a sentence, Read the follow- 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

ing sentences in the different ways indicated, and observe the differ- 
ence in meaning. 

(to) 

(from) 
The knight sprang (upon) his horse. 

(before) 

(under) 
(over) 
The mouse ran (across) my feet. 

(by) 

The words that connect, and at the same time show a 
relation between words, are called prepositions. 

A PREPOSITION IS A WORD OR A GROUP OF WORDS THAT CON- 
NECTS THE PRINCIPAL WORD OF A PHRASE TO THE WORD THE 
PHRASE MODIFIES, AND SHOWS THE RELATION BETWEEN THE 
TWO IDEAS CONNECTED. 

In (a), "through the wheat" shows the place of the 
" pathways." The word " wheat " does not show this; it 
is "through." So ■" on " in "on the clover" shows a 
place relation. In (e), " in " shows a time relation. 

The relations most often shown by prepositions are 
Relations those of time and place. In, on, at, near, to, up, 
Preposi by down, over, under, through, and a number of 
tions. other prepositions usually show a place relation. 

After, before, during, at, in, until, and many others 
usually show a time relation. 

Besides these, there are others which show a variety of 
relations ; such as, by, of, for, with, against, through, 
from, since. 

Sometimes two or more words are combined to show 
relation, making a phrase-preposition. 

Example, from under the ruins ; in accordance with the facts; 
as to the story; because of the cold. 

The principal word of a prepositional phrase is sometimes 
called the object of the preposition. 



PREPOSITIONS 45 

EXERCISE. 

63. Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. 

Model. " A lion among ladies is a most dreadful thing " is a 
sentence, because . . . 

The complete subject is " A lion among ladies." 

The complete predicate is " is a most dreadful thing." 

The bare subject is "lion," modified by the adjective "A," and 
the adjective phrase, " among ladies." 

The bare predicate is " is thing," composed of the copula " is " and 
the attribute complement "thing." The sentence, therefore, is of 
the first type. 

The attribute complement is modified by the adjectives " a " and 
" dreadful." " Dreadful " is modified by the adverb " most." 

Model for Written Analysis. 

Complete Subject A lion among ladies 

Complete Predicate is a most dreadful thing 

Bare Subject lion 

Modifiers of Subject A among ladies 

Bare Predicate is thing 

Copula is 

Attribute Complement thing 

Modifiers of Attribute Complement a dreadful 

Modifier of Modifiers most 

1. Victory is born of endurance. 

2. Excess of wealth is a cause of covetousness. 

3. All roads lead to Rome. 

4. Life without industry is guilt. 

5. I '11 speak in a monstrous little voice. 

6. Truth is truth 
To the end of reckoning. 

7. Light gains make heavy purses. 

8. This hitteth the nail on the head. 

9. The finest edge is made with a blunt whetstone. 

10. The world knows nothing of its greatest men. 

11. One on God's side is a majority. 

12. Over my head his arms he flung 

Against the world. 

13. To every man upon this earth 
Death cometh soon or late. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE. 

64. In the following sentences, select the prepositional 
phrases, and tell between what words each preposition 
shows the relation. Analyze the sentences. 

1. All vegetables have been derived from wild plants. 

2. Most of our dairy products are consumed at home. 

3. A large part of the world's commerce is carried in British 

vessels. 

4. The naked peaks stood out against the sky. 

5. At the close of that dreadful winter barely sixty of the five 

hundred were left alive. 

6. A nod from a lord is a breakfast for a fool. 

7. We are all children in the Kindergarten of God. 

8. The poplar drops beside the way 
Its tasselled plumes of silver-gray. 

9. And o'er the hills, and far away, 
Beyond their utmost purple rim, 
Beyond the night, across the day, 
Thro' all the world she followed him. 

10. Through the naked timber, 

Column-like and old, 
Gleam the sunsets of November, 
From their skies of gold. 

11. The bumblebee tipped the lily-vases along the roadside. 

12. The honeysuckle spills its perfume on the breeze. 

13. Between the pasture bars the wondering cattle stared wist- 

fully. 

14. The ripples of the river lipped the moss along the brink. 

15. Out of the shadows of night 
The world rolls into light. 

16. By their fruits ye shall know them. 

USES OF PHRASES. 

(55. (a) The holy spirit of the spring- 
Is working silently. 

(b) The southern slopes are fringed with tender green. 

(c) Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees. 

(d) The bird is on her nest. 



USES OF PHRASES 47 

(e) From her we may learn patience. 

(f) From her we may learn to be patient. 

(g) To be patient is to be strong, 
(h) Loitering makes a person tardy. 

(i) Loitering makes a person behind time. 

Point out the adjective phrase in (a) ; the adverbial phrases in (b) 
and (c); the phrase used as an attribute complement in (d). So far 
in the study of phrases, they have been attribute complements or 
modifiers. There are still other uses. 

In (e), what is the object complement of learn ? What phrase 
in (f) has exactly the same use ? A phrase, then, may be used as 
an object complement. 

What is the subject of (g) ? This shows another use of the 
phrase. 

Show that the word tardy is the objective complement in (h). 
What phrase has exactly the same use in (i) ? So a phrase may 
be used as an objective complement. 

A phrase may be used as : 

1. an adjective modifier ; 

2. an adverbial modifier ; 

3. an attribute complement; 

4. a subject; 

5. an object complement; 

6. an objective complement. 

EXERCISE. 

66. In the following sentences, tell how each phrase is 
used. You will need to be very careful in the analysis. 

1. Over the fence is out. 

2. He is trying hard to understand grammar. 

3. My book fell under the table. 

4. My book is on the table. 

5. He began the study of Greek. 

6. He began to study Greek. 

7. Too little exercise kept him in bad condition. 

8. A fool at forty is a fool indeed. 

9. He learned to keep a few true men for his friends. 
10. Waters on a starry night are beautiful and fair. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

THE INDIRECT OBJECT. 

67. There are many ways of expressing a thought. In 
this lesson, each pair of sentences expresses the same 
thought ; but the form of the expression varies. Find 
just what is the difference in form. 

(a) Lincoln gave the slaves their liberty. 

(b) Lincoln gave liberty to the slaves. 

(c) Nokomis taught the little Hiawatha many things. 

(d) Nokomis taught many things to the little Hiawatha. 

(e) She showed him the broad white road in heaven. 

(f) She showed the broad white road in heaven to him. 

(g) The snow makes a beautiful white blanket for the plants, 
(h) The snow makes the plants a beautiful white blanket. 

(i) In the poem, " The Herons of Elmwood," Longfellow sent 

Lowell a message. 
(j) In this poem, he sent a message to Lowell. 

In (a) and (b), what word names the receiver of the action 
gave ? In other words, what was given ? This word is the di- 
rect object complement. In both sentences, what word tells who 
received liberty, or to whom liberty was given ? In (g) and (h), 
what completes the meaning of the transitive verb makes ? Then 
it is the direct object complement. What receives the blanket, or 
for what was it made ? A noun or pronoun that tells to -whom 
or for whom an action is done is called an indirect object. 
This name is given because the noun or pronoun is affected 
by the verb only indirectly through the direct object. 

Find the indirect objects in each sentence in this lesson and tell 
whether the preposition is or is not expressed. Observe that the 
prepositions are used to show the relation of the indirect object to 
the verb. When not expressed, the preposition to or for is under- 
stood. When it is expressed, which is placed first, the indirect ob- 
ject or the direct object ? Which, when the preposition is omitted ? 

When the indirect object is joined to the verb by a 
preposition, the indirect object and the preposition form 
an adverbial phrase. When there is no connective, the 
indirect object is still an adverbial modifier. 



THE INDIRECT OBJECT 49 

If the indirect object follows the direct object, the pre- 
position is usually expressed ; if it precedes the direct ob- 
ject, the preposition is usually omitted. 

The most common verbs that may be followed by an 
indirect object are : bring, build, cut, do, forgive, get, 
give, grant, hand, leave, make, offer, pay, pledge, 
promise, read, sell, send, show, teach, tell, throw, 
wish. 

AN INDIRECT OBJECT IS A WORD USED WITH A DIRECT OBJECT 
TO NAME THE PERSON TO OR FOR WHOM SOMETHING IS DONE. 
Indirect objects may name things as well as persons. 

EXERCISE. 

68. Write ten sensible sentences with indirect objects, 
using ten of the verbs named in Section 67. 

EXERCISE. 

69. Analyze the following sentences. There is no need 
of a new model. An indirect object is a modifier of a 
verb, just the same as any other adverbial modifier. 

1. Jefferson offered Gallatin a position in his cabinet. 

2. The Indians sold the white people acres of land. 

3. Charles II granted his " trusty and well-beloved cousins " a 

vast extent of territory in the New World. 

4. The clock upbraids me with the waste of time. 

5. Experience has taught ns many serious lessons. 

6. Marquette told the listening crowds the story of salvation. 

7. The way to his land of promise was rough and long. 

8. A decent provision for the poor is the true test of civilization. 

9. To relieve distress is godlike. 

10. Now ouly here and there a little star 

Looks forth alone. 

11. Winter giveth the fields and trees of old 
Their beards and icicles of snow. 

NOUNS USED ADVERBIALLY. 

70. (a) The coat cost much. 

(b) The coat cost three dollars. 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(c) The war lasted long. 

(d) The war lasted four years. 

(e) Some mountains are very high. 

(f) Some mountains are four miles high. 

(g) A kind word is worth much, 
(h) The reward is worth the effort. 
(i) Cornwallis surrendered then. 

(j) Cornwallis surrendered October nineteenth. 

(k) The snow was gone long ago. 

(1) The snow was gone days ago. 

(m) Feeling was high years before the war. 

(n) The little birds fly east and the little birds fly west. 

What adverb in (a) modifies the verb cost ? It gives a mea- 
sure of value. In (b), the same verb is modified by words denoting 
a measure of value, but the value is named. Since this expression 
modifies the meaning of the verb, it is an adverbial modifier. In 
(c), what adverb modifies the verb lasted ? It is a measure of 
time. In (d), the measure of time is named. Then the expressions 
three dollars and four years are both adverbial modifiers, though 
both dollars and years are nouns. 

What adverb in (e) modifies the adjective high ? In (f), what 
words modify high by naming the measure of distance ? In (g), 
what adverb expresses the measure of value ? Why is it an adverb ? 
By what is the measure of value expressed in (h) ? Does this expres- 
sion modify the adjective worth ? Then what kind of modifier is 
it ? In (j), there is a noun used adverbially to designate a point of 
time. What is it ? What adverb in (k) modifies the adverb ago ? 
What noun in (1) has the same adverbial use ? What noun in (n) 
is used adverbially to designate a direction ? What noun in (m) is 
used adverbially to denote a measure of time modifying the meaning 
of the adverbial phrase ? 

Name the nouns in (b), (d), (f), (h), (j), (1), (m), and (n) used as 
adverbial modifiers. Which are used to modify the meaning of 
verbs ? of adjectives ? of adverbs ? of a phrase ? All but two ex- 
press some kind of measure. 

The commonest adverbial uses of a noun are to desig- 
nate measure, point of time, and direction. 

Adverbs may modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or 
phrases. Nouns used as adverbs may do the same. 



NOUNS USED ADVERBIALLY 51 

EXERCISE. 

71. Analyze the sentences according to the model. 

Model. " One warm morn, Winter crept, aged, from the earth " 
is a sentence of the second type. 

Complete Subject Winter aged 

Complete Predicate crept One warm morn 

from the earth 
Bare Subject Winter 

Modifier of Subject aged 

Bare Predicate crept 

Modifiers of Copula- Attribute One warm morn 

from the earth 

1 A pint of water weighs a pound. 

2. My father is out of the city. 

3. My father is away. 

4. The moon is far away. 

5. The sun is 92,000,000 miles away. 

6. A hundred years make a century. 

7. Years ago the Mississippi valley was the abode of Indians. 

8. They marched half a league onward. 

9. Morning, noon, and night, her tongue was forever going. 

10. Your privileges have cost labor and sacrifice. 

11. The view from the mountain-top is worth the wearj r climb. 

12. The situation was not without its embarrassments. My rod 

weighed four and a half ounces. The fish weighed five or 
six pounds. The current was furious and headstrong. I 
had only thirty yards of line and no landing-net. 

13. One to-day is worth two to-morrows. 

14. No morning sun lasts a whole day. 

NOUNS USED ADJECTIVELY: APPOSITIVES AND 
POSSESSIVES. 

72. You have studied the uses of nouns as subject, 
attribute complement, object complement, objective com- 
plement, and adverbial modifiers. Give examples of each 
in sentences. Two other uses of nouns are shown in the 
following sentences. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(a) Nero, a Roman emperor, murdered Christians for his plea- 

sure. 

(b) I, John, saw these things. 

(c) William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh, a Shawnee 

chief. 

(d) Slavery received its hardest blow from William Lloyd Garri- 

son, a poor printer. 

(e) The chief's eye flashed. 

(f) A man's reach should exceed his grasp. 

(g) A serpent's bite is poisonous. 

(h) Some men seem to have a lion's strength, 
(i) One winter's evening a man was urging a tired horse along 
a lonely road. 

What word in (a) modifies Nero by telling who he was ? It is 
an adjective modifier. Why ? What word in (b) modifies the pro- 
noun I by identifying, or naming ? It is also an adjective modifier. 
Why ? What noun in (c) tells in what class to place Tecumseh ? 
Since it adds to the meaning of a noun by expressing the attribute 
of classification, it is an adjective modifier. Show that the noun 
printer in (d) has the same use. In all four sentences you have 
pointed out nouns used as adjective modifiers. There is no word to 
connect these nouns with the words they modify. A noun, then, 
may modify another noun directly, both of them naming 
the same subject of thought. A noun having this adjective 
use is called an appositive. 

AN APPOSITIVE IS A NOUN USED ADJECTIVELY TO ADD TO 
THE MEANING OF A NOUN OR PRONOUN BY NAMING THE SAME 
SUBJECT OF THOUGHT. 

Observe the mark used to separate an appositive from 
the rest of the sentence. Frame a rule for this use of the 
comma. 

What noun in (e) names the possessor or owner of eye ? What 
noun in (f) modifies the meaning of the noun reach denoting pos- 
session ? In the same sentence, a pronoun is used to denote posses- 
sion. What noun does this pronoun limit in meaning ? These 
words denoting possession are possessive modifiers. They 
are nouns and pronouns used adjectively to modify other 
nouns and pronouns. In writing such noun modifiers, what mark 
is used as the sign of the possessive ? 



NOUNS USED ADJECTIVELY 53 

Not all nouns with the sign of the possessive, the apos- 
trophe, denote possession. In (c), the serpent cannot be 
said to own or possess the bite. " Serpent's " is a modi- 
fier denoting the agent of an action. In (d), " lion's " 
does not mean that the man possesses the actual strength 
belonging to the lion. It is a modifier used to describe 
" strength." And in (e), " winter's " does not denote 
possession ; it is descriptive. Yet because most words 
with the sign of the possessive actually do denote posses- 
sion, we term them all possessives. 

Nouns, then, have two adjective uses ; as appositives, 
and as possessives. 

A noun used as an appositive or a possessive may be 
modified by adjectives, the same as other nouns. Find 
examples. 

EXERCISE. 

73. Write five sentences each containing an appositive. 
In three of the sentences, use adjectives to modify the 
meaning of the appositives. 

Write five sentences each containing a possessive modi- 
fier ; and in three of these sentences use adjectives to 
modify the meaning of the possessive. 

EXERCISE. 

74. Re-write the following sentences, changing each 
possessive modifier to an adjective phrase beginning with 
the preposition of. For example, " The weapon of a 
worthless coward has no point." 

(a) A worthless coward's weapon has no point. 

(b) A boy's will is the wind's will. 

(c) Every subject's duty is the king's. 

(d) Every subject's soul is his own. 

(e) The rich man's son inherits cares. 

(f ) What cloth the poor man's son inherit ? 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(g) One on God's side is a majority. 

(h) The daisy's cheek is tipped with a blush. 

Have you changed the meaning in any case ? Tell of 
each sentence whether you like it better with the posses- 
sive or with the phrase. 

EXERCISE. 

75. Analyze the sentences according to the model. 

Model. " William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh, a Shawnee 
chief," is a sentence. 

The complete subject is " William Henry Harrison." 

The complete predicate is " defeated Tecumseh, a Shawnee 
chief." 

The bare subject is " William Henry Harrison," unmodified. 

The bare predicate is " defeated Tecumseh," composed of the 
copula-attribute "defeated" and the object complement " Tecum- 
seh." The sentence is, therefore, of the third type. " Tecumseh " 
is modified by the appositive " chief." " Chief " is modified by the 
adjectives " a " and " Shawnee." 

1. Hildebrand, the son of a poor carpenter, became pope in the 

eleventh century. 

2. Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian sailor, made the first chart of 

the coast of America. 

3. The Gauls were subdued by Caesar, dictator of Rome. 

4. No man knows his own voice. 

5. Out of this nettle, danger, we pluck the flower, safety. 

6. The army moved forward after a month's delay. 

7. Gladness on wings, the bobolink, is here. 

8. My oriole, my glance of summer fire, is come at last. 

9. Stanch friends are we, 
One little sandpiper and I. 

10. He wandered away and away 
With Nature, the dear old Nurse. 

11. Noontide wakes the buttercups, 
The little children's dower. 

12. Still sits the schoolhouse by the road, 
A ragged beggar sunning. 

13. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of heaven, 
Blossomed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the angels. 



NOUNS USED ADJECTIVELY 55 

EXERCISE. 

76. In the following sentences, the same word occurs 
a number of times ; but its use in the several sentences is 
not the same. Study the meaning of each sentence, and 
be sure to give the words their proper place in the analy- 
sis. Analyze the sentences according to models already 
given. Classify the words as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, 
verbs, adverbs, and prepositions. Always give the reason 
for your classification. 

1. The dog ran fast. 

2. The fast horses were tied fast to the fence. 

3. The Jews observed the fast. 

4. Many persons fast during Lent. 

5. He came in. 

6. We sat in the reading-room of the inn. 

7. He looked at himself in the mirror. 

8. He had the look of a gentleman. 

9. I fell down. I stayed down. 

10. I rolled down the hill. 

11. The robin picked down from her breast. 

12. A down pillow is soft. 

13. The only real possession of man is his character. 

14. I whispered only once. 

15. I only whispered once. 

16. Only he went. 

17. The door is wide open. 

18. The door is open wide. 

19. The door stood wide open. 

20. The open door is the American policy in China. 

21. They open the gate. 

22. I hear the low murmur of the breeze. 

23. I feel the breeze. 

24. I feel cool. 

25. The breeze is murmuring soft and low. 

26. The house is painted red. 

27. They painted the house red. 

28. The poker is red hot. 

29. The hot poker is red. 

30. Red is my favorite color. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 

77. Which usually comes first in a sentence, — the subject or the 
predicate ? Prove your answer by your reading lesson. Do com- 
plements usually follow or precede the verbs ? Give examples. Do 
the word modifiers of a noun generally precede or follow the word 
modified ? Is this true of the phrase modifiers ? Find examples to 
show thnt your answers are correct. Write the answers to the 
questions in this paragraph in complete sentences. 

Show in what respect each of the following sentences varies from 
the usual order. Observe the difference in the impression left in 
your mind. Re-write each sentence, changing the order to the usual 
form. 

(a) In union is strength. 

(b) Ideals we do not make. We discover them. 

(c) Slowly and quietly the great gray clouds creep up over the 

night sky. 

(d) Silent and soft and slow 

Descends the snow. 

(e) All around the happy village 
Stood the maize fields green and shining. 

Is it not true in each case that the words placed first attract at- 
tention and so are emphatic ? 

It' all sentences should be arranged in the same order, 
composition would become monotonous. To introduce 
variety into composition, and to render a special word 
emphatic, writers change from the usual order. A verb, 
adjective, adverb, complement, or modifier placed first in a 
sentence receives especial emphasis. Any part of a sen- 
tence may be put out of its natural order to give the com- 
position variety, and especially to give emphasis to the 
transposed part. 

EXERCISE. 

78. Analyze the five sentences above and the sentences 
below. There is no new element in them. Be very care- 
ful to know what each sentence means before you begin 
with the analysis. 



ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE 57 

1. From the dull ground, the violet gathers up her tender blue. 

2. A prisoner Robert remained for twenty-eight years. 

3. A mighty man is he, 
With large and sinewy hands. 

4. A rare old plant is the ivy green. 

5. With his hard, rough hand, 

He wipes a tear out of his eyes. 

6. A primrose by the river's brim 
A yellow primrose was to him. 

7. Three years she grew in sun and shower. 

8. Sweet is the breath of morn. 

9. In a small chamber, friendless and unseen, 
Toiled o'er his types one poor unlearned young man. 

10. Him have I offended. 

11. Shorter and shorter now the twilight clips the days. 

12. Old homesteads I love, in their clusters of trees. 

79. The following sentences show a common way of 
varying the usual order of words in a sentence. 

(a) A window-box of beautiful geraniums is here by me. 

(b) There is a bank of beautiful geraniums here by me. 

(c) No day is without its innocent hope. 

(d) There is no day without its innocent hope. 

(e) Something forever comes between us and happiness. 

(f) There comes forever something between us and happiness. 

(g) Shepherds were keeping watch by night. 

(h) There were shepherds keeping watch by night. 

(i) Men of honor and courage are still in the world. 

(j) There are still men of honor and courage in the world. 

What word is used to introduce the sentence in (b), (d), (f), (h), 
and (j), when the usual order is changed ? Though this word is 
sometimes used as an adverb of place, thoughtful study of the mean- 
ing will show that it is not so used in the sentences given. For ex- 
ample, in the first sentence, here is certainly an adverb of place ; 
and both here and there could not be used in the same sentence 
to denote the same place. In this, as in the other sentences 
given above, " there " is simply an introductory word. 

What three elements are necessary in every sentence ? What is 
the subject of (j) ? What does is mean in (j) ? Is this verb a copula 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

or a copula-attribute ? Is it a copulative or an attributive verb ? 
Whenever " is " means " exists," it forms the copula-attribute 
of the sentence. 

Show that the two sentences in .each group have the same subjects 
and the same predicates. Tell just what changes have been made 
in the natural order when the introductory word there is used. Give 
other examples. 

Another form of expression is shown in the sentences 
below. 

(a) To have friends at court is good. 

(b) It is good to have friends at court. 

(c) To get a joke well into a Scotch understanding requires a 

surgical operation. 

(d) It requires a surgical operation to get a joke well into a 

Scotch understanding. 

(e) To be conscious of no faults is the greatest of faults. 

(f) It is the greatest of faults to be conscious of no faults. 

(g) To catch a thief needs a thief, 
(h) It needs a thief to catch a thief. 

(i) That every man's work is born into this world with him is true, 
(j) It is true that every man's work is born into this world with 
him. 

What is the complete subject of (a) ? (c) ? (e) ? (g) ? (i) ? 

When the real subject of a sentence is a group of words denoting 
a single idea, it seldom stands at the beginning of a sentence. The 
predicate often comes before the real subject, with the pronoun " it " 
used as another subject in apposition with the real subject. For 
example, in (b), It and the phrase to have friends at court 
mean the same ; they name the same subject of thought ; they are 
in apposition. 

Can you think why the word "it" in such sentences is called 
an anticipatory subject? The group of words which it an- 
ticipates is called the real subject. What is the real subject of 
(b) ? (d) ? (f) ? (h) ? (j) ? 

EXERCISE. 

80. Analyze the following sentences. Do not try to 
separate the real subject into its parts. The predicate 
of each sentence is easy to analyze. 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES 59 

Model. " It is honorable to work with the hands " is a sentence 
because : 

The complete subject is " It " " to work with the hands." 

The complete predicate is " is honorable," composed of a copula 
and an attribute complement. The sentence is, therefore, of the first 
type. 

" It " is the anticipatory subject, in apposition with the real subject, 
" to work with the hands." 

1. It is a grand thing to make something beautiful. 

2. There is no food for the soul but truth. 

3. It was morning on hill and stream and tree. 

4. There 's a star in the sky. 

5. It is a great thing to be beloved by one's country. 

6. There is no doubt on that score. 

7. There was little conversation. 

8. There was a little chapel cut in the very heart of the moun- 

tains. 

9. It takes a long time to bring excellence to maturity. 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 

81. (a) Truth is eternal. 

(b) Art is long. 

(c) Time is fleeting. 

(d) Rome was not built in a day. 

(e) Are we so soon forgot ? 

(f ) How soon are we forgot ? 

(g) Who loves not power ? 
(h) What find I here ? 

(i) To what will avarice bring us ? 

(j) What manner of man is this ? 

(k) What have they named the new ship ? 

(1) Be a hero in the strife. 

(m) Act well your part. 

(n) Be charitable with others. 

(o) Be strict with thyself. 

Which of the above sentences are used to declare that something 
is, or is not, true ? W'hich are used to ask questions ? Which are 
used to give commands ? 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Sentences are classified according to their use, as declara- 
tive, interrogative, or imperative. 

What element of a declarative sentence usually stands first ? Is 
this usually true of interrogative sentences ? Is the suhject first in 
(e) ? in (f) ? in (g) ? in (h) ? in (i) ? in (j) ? in (k) ? What may stand 
first in an interrogative sentence ? What element stands first in the 
imperative sentences ? What element is omitted in the imperative 
sentences ? 

A declarative sentence usually begins with the subject. 

In an interrogative sentence, that element stands first 
about which the question is asked. If the question is 
about the copula, the copula is first; as in (e). If it is 
about the subject, the subject stands first. The same prin- 
ciple holds true with the other elements of a sentence. 

In an imperative sentence, the verb, the word that gives 
the command, stands first. In all kinds of sentences, then, 
the important word in the sentence stands at the beginning. 

The grammatical use of the interrogative word in a sen- 
tence may be made clear by substituting the word which 
answers the question. 

Examples. Who ) 

( loves not power ? 
John) 

What) 

( have they named him ? 
James) 

Who ) 

( is he ? 
The King ) 

In the interrogative sentence, " Who is he ? " " Who " is not, as it 
might seem to be, the subject. For if we substitute the word which 
answers the question, the sentence reads, " The King is he," or, as 
we usually say, " He is the King." " King " is the attribute ; and so 
" Who" is an attribute complement in the question, "Who is he ? " 

Since we give commands to the person spoken to, there 
is no need of always saying " you." So the subject of an 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES 61 

imperative sentence is omitted. In analysis it should be 
supplied. 

A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE IS ONE THAT ASSERTS A FACT. 

AN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE IS ONE USED IN ASKING QUES- 
TIONS. 

AN IMPERATIVE SENTENCE IS ONE USED IN EXPRESSING A 
COMMAND OR AN ENTREATY. 

EXERCISE. 

82. Analyze the following sentences. Before analysis 
always think the sentences re-arranged in the usual de- 
clarative order. 

Model. " What find I here ? " is an interrogative sentence. 
The complete subject is "I." 
The complete predicate is " find What here." 
The bare subject is "I" unmodified. 

The bare predicate is " find What," composed of the copula- 
attribute "find" and the object complement " What." 
The sentence is, therefore, of the third type. 
The copula-attribute is modified by the adverb " here." 

1. When did Cornwallis surrender ? 

2. Who is the greatest living poet ? 

3. How much have you paid for your whistle ? 

4. Does a man ever play the monkey ? 

5. Where is Paris ? 

6. Who hath not lost a friend ? 

7. Whither wilt thou flee from thyself ? 

8. Did the waves obey King Canute ? 

9. Where is the most rugged American scenery? 

10. What cat 's averse to fish ? 

11. How great a fire a little matter kindle th ! 

12. What shall I render to my God 

For all his gifts to me ? 

13. Where shall wisdom be found ? 

14. Where is the place of understanding ? 

15. Whence, then, coineth wisdom ? 

16. Who has read " The Vision of Sir Launfal " ? 

17. What is the largest city in the world ? 

18. What study do you like best ? 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

ABSOLUTE WORDS — INTERJECTIONS. 

83. (a) Man, know thyself ! 

(b) How beautiful is night ! 

(c) Oh, pilot, 't is a fearful night ! 

(d) Oh, never chide the wing of time ! 

Which of the three classes of sentences is (a) ? (b) ? (c) ? (d) ? 
In what way do all four sentences differ from ordinary sentences ? 
Is the subject of an imperative sentence expressed ? Is man in 
(a) the subject ? Do we say " man know " or " man knows " ? 
What is the subject of (c) ? Of what use is pilot ? Are the 
words Man, pilot, Oh, elements of the sentences? Are they 
modifiers ? 

Under stress of great emotion any sentence may be- 
come an exclamation. This does not change 
Exclamatory ° 

Form of the class oi sentence. It is the exclamatory 
Sentences. 

form of a declarative, interrogative, or impera- 
tive sentence. 

A sentence may contain words that grammatically have 
no connection with it ; yet these words add to the mean- 
ing of the sentence. These words are said to be inde- 
pendent or absolute. " Absolute " means " cut loose 
from ; " and these words are grammatically cut loose from 
the rest of the sentence, though in thought they have a 
close connection. Such words are used independently or 
absolutely. 

The name of the person addressed is used absolutely ; 
as, " man " in (a). 

Absolute words that are used to express strong feeling- 
are called Interjections. Oh, alas, ah, pshaw,, are com- 
mon examples. 

AN INTERJECTION IS A WORD USED TO EXPRESS SUDDEN 
STRONG FEELING. 

Rule. An exclamation point should follow every excla- 
mation. 



INTERJECTIONS 63 

EXERCISE. 

84. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. "Oh, pilot, 'tis a fearful night ! " is a declarative sen- 
tence in the exclamatory form. " 't " is the complete subject; " is a 
fearful night " is the complete predicate 

" 't " is the bare subject, unmodified. 

" Is night " is the bare predicate, composed of the copula " is " and 
the predicate attribute " night." The sentence is, therefore, of the 
first type. 

" Night " is modified by the adjectives " a " and " fearful." 

" Oh " and " pilot " are used absolutely in the sentence. 

1. Woodman, spare that tree ! 

2. Charge for the guns ! 

3. Lead, kindly Light ! 

4. Daughter of Egypt, veil thine eyes ! 

5. Sleep, sleep, sleep, 

In thy folded waves, O sea ! 

6. There 's a song in the air ! 
There 's a star in the sky ! 

7. My golden spurs now bring to me. 

8. Rock me to sleep, mother, — rock me to sleep ! 

9. Weep no more, my lady ! 
Weep no more to-day ! 

We will sing one song for the old Kentucky home, 
For the old Kentuck} r home, far away. 

10. Adieu ! adieu ! my native shore 
Fades o'er the waters blue. 

11. Oh, velvet Bee, you 're a dusty fellow ! 

12. Wind, you sing so loud a song ! 

13. By cool Siloam's shady rill 
How fair the lily grows ! 

14. Hark ! the merry Christmas bells ! 
Hear them echo through the years ! 

15. Hurrah ! the seaward breezes 
Sweep down the bay amain ! 

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

85. (a) Man is guided by reason. 

(b) Beasts are guided by instinct. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(c) Man is guided by reason, and beasts are guided by instinct. 

(d) Man is guided by reason, and beasts by instinct. 

How many statements in (a) ? in (b) ? in (c) ? How has (c) been 
made ? Does (d) mean the same as (c) ? What words have been^ 
omitted in (d) ? Is the meaning perfectly clear without them ? Do 
the omitted words contain necessary elements of the sentence ? Must 
the omitted words be supplied in analysis ? In (c) and (d), what 
word is used to join the statements ? 

A SIMPLE SENTENCE IS ONE THAT CONTAINS ONE SUBJECT 
AND ONE PREDICATE. 

A COMPOUND SENTENCE IS ONE THAT CONTAINS TWO OR 
MORE INDEPENDENT STATEMENTS, OR PROPOSITIONS. 

ELLIPSIS IS THE OMISSION OF ANY WORD OR WORDS NECES- 
SARY TO THE GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF A SENTENCE. 

(These words must be supplied in the analysis of the sentence.) 

The word joining the independent statements of a com- 
pound sentence is called a conjunction. 

EXERCISE. 

86. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " Man is guided by reason, and beasts by instinct " is a 
compound, declarative sentence ; compound, because . . . ; and declar- 
ative, because . . . 

The first independent statement is " Man is guided by reason," and 
the second is " beasts (are guided) by instinct." 

Go on with the analysis exactly as if the statements were simple 
sentences. 

The independent statements are connected by the conjunction 
"and." 

1. Virtue is bold, and goodness is never fearful. 

2. Wealthy planters settled in Virginia, but the settlers in Massa- 

chusetts were generally poor. 

3. Minnesota produces the most iron, and Pennsylvania the most 

coal. 

4. The British moved against New York, and Washington with- 

drew his forces to Long Island. 

5. A false balance is an abomination to the Lord; but a just 

weight is his delight. 



COMPOUND ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE 65 

6. Hatred stirreth up strifes; but love covereth all transgres- 

sions. 

7. A cruel story runs on wheels, and every hand oils the wheels. 

8. Terror is not always the effect of force, and an armament is 

not a victory. 

9. By slothf ulness the roof sinketh in ; 

And through idleness of the hands the house leaketh. 

10. The soft drops of rain pierce the hard marble ; many strokes 

overthrow the tallest oaks. 

11. The morn was fair, the skies were clear, 

No breath came o'er the sea. 

12. My country is the world; my countrymen are all mankind. 

COMPOUND ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE. 

87. (a) A crow and a blue jay belong to the same family of 
birds. 

(b) Wolfe defeated the French and Indians under Mont- 

calm. 

(c) Pope Leo XIII was -wise and kind. 

(d) The angels come and go, the messengers of God. 

(e) Neither ancestry nor riches makes a man esteemed 

or loved. 

What is the subject of (a) ? Does it name one idea ? What 
is the object in (b) ? the predicate attribute in (c) ? the copula- 
attribute in (d) ? the subject in (e) ? the objective complement 
in (e) ? 

Any of the elements of a sentence, — subject, copula, 
attribute, object, — or any modifier, may be compound. 

The word that connects the parts of any compound ele- 
ment is a conjunction. 

In the next exercise, find sentences in which several words form a 
compound element. Are there several conjunctions connecting all 
the parts of the compound elements ? If not, what takes the place 
of the conjunctions ? 

When more than two words are joined to make a com- 
pound element of a sentence, the conjunction is usually 
omitted except before the last one. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Rule. A comma is used to separate the -words or phrases 
of a series, unless all the connecting words are expressed. 

EXERCISE. 

88. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " The angels come and go, the messengers of God " is a 
simple, declarative sentence. There is nothing new in this analysis 
except to state that the bare predicate is the compound copula- 
attribute "come and go." The sentence is, therefore, of the second 
type. 

1. Tar, turpentine, and resin are mainly supplied by the pine for- 

ests of the South. 

2. Raw silk is reeled and sent to the market in skeins. 

3. The United States buys from Australia wool, gums, hides, and 

copper, and sells to Australia petroleum, railway cars, to- 
bacco, hardware, and leather goods. 

4. Railroads are numerous and rates are cheap in Germany. 

5. All European and many American manufacturers buy large 

quantities of raw silk in Italy. 

6. Venezuela exports quantities of rubber and coffee. 

7. Belgium makes all its own sugar, and exports much. 

8. The Dutch are a cattle-raising and trading nation. 

9. The northeast portion of France produces coal and iron. 

10. The Saskatchewan and the Mackenzie afford 4000 miles of 
navigable waterways in the far interior of Canada. 

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

89. (a) Brave Joan, on a white horse, defeated the English. 

(b) Brave Joan, who rode a white horse, defeated the 

English. 

(c) She who rode the white horse was Joan of Arc, 

(d) The white horse which she rode was a mark for Eng- 

lish arrows. 

(e) The white horse that she rode was a mark for English 

arrows. 

(f) Joan, in whom the army trusted, led the French to 

victory at Orleans. 

(g) Joan, whose horse was a mark for English arrows, 

was wounded. 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 67 

(h) The horse on -which she rode was white, 
(i) The horse which she rode on was white, 
(j) The horse that she rode on was white, 
(k) They killed the horse which Joan rode. 
(1) Joan was a brave leader that inspired courage, 
(ra) The English soldiers railed at Joan, who answered them 
with silence. 

What are the modifiers of Joan in (a) ? Since they modify a 
noun, what kind of modifiers are they ? What besides brave mod- 
ifies Joan in (b) ? Since it modifies a noun, it is what kind of 
modifier ? Has this modifier a subject and a predicate ? What 
are they ? 

It has been shown in previous lessons that a noun may- 
be modified by a word or a phrase. A noun may also be 
modified by a group of words containing a subject and 
a predicate. 

A part of a sentence containing a subject and a predi- 
cate, and having the use of an adjective, is a clause. 

In (c), what does the clause, who rode the white horse, 
modify? In what sentences do the clauses modify the subject? Is 
there a sentence in which the clause is a modifier of the predicate 
attribute ? in which the clause modifies an object complement ? the 
principal word of a prepositional phrase ? 

If the word to which a pronoun refers be substituted for the pro- 
noun, the use of the pronoun will always be clear. Doing this in 
(d), you will make the clause read, " a white horse Joan rode." 
" A white horse " is the object complement ; so which, which repre- 
sents " a white horse " is also the object complement. What is the 
use of whom in (f) ? of whose in (g) ? of which in (h) ? of 
that in (1) ? 

In a prepositional phrase, does the preposition usually precede the 
principal word of the phrase ? Which is first in (f ) ? in (h) ? Which 
stands first in (i) ? in (j) ? Can you think of a sentence in which a 
noun used as the principal word of a phrase stands before the prepo- 
sition ? 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE. 

90. Find sentences in your histories in which clauses 
modify nouns that are subjects, attributes, objects. Make 
up a sentence in which a clause is a modifier of a pro- 
noun. 

CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

91. In sentence (b), Section 89, what subject of thought is repre- 
sented by who? A word that represents a subject of thought, 
but does not name it, is what ? Who also joins the clause who 
rode a white horse to the word it modifies, and so has the use of a 
conjunction. Find in Section 89 other words that combine the uses 
of a pronoun and a conjunction. 

A word that has the uses of a pronoun and a conjunc- 
tion is called a conjunctive pronoun. 

A CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUN IS A PRONOUN THAT CONNECTS AN 
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE TO THE WORD IT MODIFIES. 

A sentence containing an adjective clause is complex. 

EXERCISE. 

92. Analyze the sentences according to the model. 

Model. " To-day is the day that yesterday built " is a com- 
plex, declarative sentence ; complex, because . . . ; declarative, be- 
cause . . . The complete subject is " To-day " ; the complete pre- 
dicate is " is the day that yesterday built." " To-day " is the bare 
subject unmodified. " Is day " is the bare predicate, composed of the 
copula " is " and the attribute complement " day." The sentence is, 
therefore, of the first type. The copula is unmodified ; and the 
attribute complement is modified by the adjective " the " and the 
adjective clause " that yesterday built." Of this clause " yester- 
day " is the unmodified bare subject. " Built " is the copula-attri- 
bute ; and " that " is the object complement. " That " also connects 
the clause to the word " day." 

Model for Written Analysis. 

Complete Subject To-day 

Complete Predicate is the day that yesterday built. 



CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS 69 

Bare Subject To-day 
Bare Predicate is day- 
Copula is 
Attribute Complement day 

Modifiers of Attribute Complement the that yesterday built 

Subject of Clause yesterday 

Bare Predicate built that 

Copula-Attribute built 

Object Complement that 

1. Most of the rubies that are found in the world come from 

Burma. 

2. George III, who was a foolish tyrant, lost America by his 

folly. 

3. T. J. Jackson, who is usually called " Stonewall Jackson," 

was a Confederate general. 

4. Franklin obtained the help that was needed. 

5. Friendship is a plant that loves the sun. 

6. He that complies against his will 

Is of the same opinion still. 

7. The flower that smiles to-day 

To-morrow dies. 

8. All that glitters is not gold. 

9. To-morrow is a lamp upon the marsh, which a traveller never 

reacheth. 

10. They love dress too much who give it their first thought, their 

best time, or much money. 

11. They always talk who never think. 

12. The tear down childhood's cheek that flows 
Is like the dewdrop on the rose. 

13. The snow had begun in the gloaming, 

And busily all the night 
Had been heaping field and highway 
With a silence deep and white. 

Every pine and fir and hemlock 

Wore ermine too dear for an earl, 
And the poorest twig on the elm-tree 

Was ridged inch-deep with pearl. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



ELLIPSIS IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

93. (a) I knew the sweet strain that the corn-reapers sung. 

(b) The song which he listened to was a song of his child- 

hood. 

(c) The pain that it had cost to reach his home was forgotten 

in joy- 
In (a), what is the use of the conjunctive pronoun ? Read the 
sentence omitting that. Is the meaning clear ? What is the omis- 
sion of words necessary to the grammatical structure of a sentence 
called ? What is the use of which in (b) ? Can it be omitted ? 
What use has that in (c) ? Can it be omitted ? 

An ellipsis of a conjunctive pronoun is very common 
when it is used as an object complement, as the principal 
word of a prepositional phrase, or as an adverbial modi- 
fier. It rarely occurs when the conjunctive pronoun is 
subject or attribute. It must be supplied in analysis. 

EXERCISE. 

94. Analyze the following sentences. Whenever there 
is an ellipsis, supply the missing word in the analysis. 

1. I saw the man that you spoke to. 

2. I saw the man you spoke to. 

3. Where are the toys we loved in childhood ? 

4. The prize we sought is won. 

5. The division Napoleon had depended on did not arrive in time. 

6. No gratitude had Charles for those who had lost their lands 

or risked their lives in his service. 

7. Stone walls do not a prison make, 

Nor iron bars a cage. 

8. The best thing I know between France and England is the sea. 

9. Lord Stafford mines for coal and salt, 
The Duke of Norfolk deals in malt, 
The Douglas in red herrings. 

10. There 's a blush on the apple, 
A tint on the wing, 
And the bright wind whistles, 
And the pulses sting. 



ELLIPSIS IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 71 

11. Come, stack arms ; pile on the rails; 

Stir up the camp-fire bright. 

12. My golden spurs now bring to me, 
And bring to me my richest mail. 

13. Oh, pilot, 't is a fearful night ! 
There 's danger on the deep. 

14. A lady red upon the hill 

Her annual secret keeps ; 
A lady white within the field 
In placid lily sleeps. 

EXERCISE. 

95. Construct or find sentences, — three of which 
shall contain a conjunctive pronoun used as subject, three 
a conjunctive pronoun used as object complement, two 
a conjunctive pronoun used as the principal word of a 
prepositional phrase, and two in which the conjunctive 
pronoun is omitted. 

EXERCISE. 

96. Arrange the words of the first six sentences in col- 
umns as shown in the model. Analyze the sentences of 
the paragraph. 

Model. 

nouns. pronouns. adj. verbs. adv. prep. conj. 
God They serve well 

creatures who serve 

his 

1. They serve God well who serve his creatures. 

2. The rising blushes which the cheek o'erspread 

Are opening roses in a lily's bed. 

3. Flowers are the sweetest things that God ever made. 

4. Wealth is the least gift that God has bestowed on mankind. 

5. The river welcomes me like an old friend. The tune that it 

sings is the same that flowing water repeats all around the 
world. 

6. A touch of surprise is essential to perfect happiness. 

7. The firing on Fort Sumter aroused the North to the highest 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

pitch of excitement. Among the great mass of citizens there 
were no longer discussions of constitutional or legal rights. 
The flag of the nation had been fired upon, and that was 
enough. The President called for volunteers, and the people 
answered Avith promptness. Washington was in peril, and 
the troops hastened to its defense. The first blood of the 
war was shed in Baltimore ; a mob resisted the passage of 
the Northern regiments. That city was forcibly occupied. 
Washington was garrisoned and fortified. It remained a 
walled town four years. 
Adapted from McLaughlin's History of the United States. 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

97- (a) Knowledge is the wing wherewith we fly to heaven. 

(b) One never forgets the home where he lived during 

childhood. 

(c) Near the spot where Tell leaped ashore now stands a 

chapel. 

(d) That was a glorious moment when Aurora drew back 

the curtain of the night. 

In the clause in (a), substitute " with which " for wherewith. 
What does " with which " modify ? What kind of modifier is this 
phrase ? Does the word wherewith modify the same word as the 
phrase ? In (b), what words could you substitute for where ? 
What do these words modify ? What kind of modifier are these 
words ? What kind of modifier is the word where ? In (d), what 
words could you substitute for when? What does the phrase mod- 
ify ? What, then, does when modify? What kind of modifier is it? 

What word does the clause in (a) modify ? What kind of modi- 
fier is the clause ? What word connects the clause to the word it 
modifies ? What word serves as a connective in (b) ? in (c) ? 
in (d) ? 

In these sentences there are words which modify the 
verbs in the clauses, and at the same time connect the 
Conjunctive clauses to the words the clauses modify. As 
Adverbs. modifiers, they are adverbs ; and as connectives, 
they are conjunctions. They are called conjunctive ad- 
verbs. 



CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS 73 

A CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB IS AN ADVERB THAT CONNECTS THE 
CLAUSE IN WHICH IT IS A MODIFIER TO THE WORD WHOSE 
MEANING THE CLAUSE MODIFIES. 

EXERCISE. 

98. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. "I know a bank where the wild thyme blows" is a 
complex, declarative sentence. "I" is the bare subject unmodified; 
" know a bank where the wild thyme blows " is the complete pre- 
dicate. " Know bank " is the bare predicate, composed of the copula- 
attribute " know " and the object complement " bauk." The sentence 
is, therefore, of the third type. The copula-attribute is unmodified. 
" Bank " is modified by the adjective " a " and the adjective clause 
"where the wild thyme blows." Of the clause, "the wild thyme" 
is the complete subject; and "blows" is the unmodified predicate. 
The bare subject is modified by the adjectives " the " and " wild." 
" Where" connects the clause to the word it modifies, and is a modi- 
fier of the copula-attribute " blows." 

1. There is a National Cemetery on the ground where the battle 

of Gettysburg was fought. 

2. At a time when no white settlers dwelt beyond the Alleghanies, 

Boone entered Kentucky. 

3. He does not know the name of the city whence he came. 

4. I remember the day when I had my first pair of boots. 

5. In the tropics, where the heat is intense, little meat is eaten. 

6. I remember, I remember, 
The house where I was born. 

7. For a cap and bells our lives we pay, 
Bubbles we buy with a whole soul's tasking. 

8. Cannon to right of them, 
Cannon to left of them, 
Cannon in front of them 

Volley'd and thundered. 

9. Now has the lingering month at last gone by. 

10. A brazen altar stood beneath their feet, 
Whereon a thin flame flickered in the wind. 

11. Every night I go abroad 
Afar into the land of Nod. 

12. He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call retreat; 
He is sifting out the hearts of men before his judgment seat. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

13. Of all the boys that were schoolmates then 

There are only you and I. 

14. The meanest floweret of the vale, 

The simplest note that swells the gale, 
The common sun, the air, the skies, 
To him were opening Paradise. 

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 

99. In the last lesson conjunctive adverbs were used 
to introduce adjective clauses. Conjunctive adverbs have 
another and more common use. 

(a) When I was sick and lay abed, 
I had two pillows at my head. 

(b) A guest is unwelcome when he stays too long. 

(c) Count the cost before you go to Rome. 

(d) After the tempest has passed, the calm will come. 

(e) Strike while the iron is hot. 

(f) Where the leader of a flock goes, the sheep follow. 

(g) Where Mary went, the lamb went too. 

Show that in each of the sentences there is an adverbial modifier 
which contains a subject and a predicate. 

A part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate 
and having the use of an adverb is a clause. 

A sentence containing an adverbial clause is complex. 

EXERCISE. 

100. Analyze the following sentences, following the 
models already given. 

1. All will be gay, when noontide wakes anew 

The buttercups. 

2. Care keeps his watch in every old man's eye ; 
And where care lodges, sleep will never lie. 

3. When stars pursue their solemn flight, 
Oft in the middle of the night, 

A strain of music visits me. 

4. Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, 
Where wealth accumulates and men decay. 



ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 75 

5. Noiseless falls the foot of time 
That only treads on flowers. 

6. The west is broken into bars 
Of orange, gold, and gray; 

Gone is the sun, come are the stars, 
And night infolds the day. 

7. True hope is swift, and flies with swallows' wings; 
Kings it makes gods, and meaner creatures kings. 

8. Put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry. 

9. Fortune makes a fool of him whom she makes her darling. 
10. Hardly had the war begun, when England issued a " proclama- 
tion of neutrality." This acknowledged the belligerency 
of the Confederacy. The North had hoped for the sym- 
pathy of the English in a contest manifestly in the interest 
of freedom. When England so quickly issued this procla- 
mation, there was considerable resentment. France soon 
took the same step, and other states followed. 

101. So far in the study of adverbial clauses, they have 
been used to denote time and place. But there are many 
other relations that may be expressed by these clauses. 

(a) If the blind lead the blind, both shall fall into the pit. 

(b) Manufacturing towns spring up near coal mines, because 

coal is a very important source of power. 

(c) Though thy smile be lost to sight, 

To mem'ry thou art dear. 

(d) We sow that we may reap. 

(e) Laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon overtakes him. 

What is the idea expressed by the clause in (a) ? Does the clause 
modify both ? pit ? shall fall ? Is the clause adjective or ad- 
verbial ? In (b), does the clause modify the subject or the predi- 
cate ? What idea is expressed by the clause ? What idea is ex- 
pressed by the clause in (c) ? in (d) ? in (e) ? Are the clauses 
adjective or adverbial ? 

Does If seem to you to have an adverbial idea in it ? Has it a 
connective value ? Does because connect ? Does it modify ? Does 
Though connect ? Does it modify ? Does that connect ? Does it 
modify ? 

Adverbial clauses may express a great variety of ideas. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The principal ones are time, place, condition, conces- 
sion, cause, purpose, and* result. 

Such words as if, though, because, and that when it 
introduces adverbial clauses, are connectives ; but they 
have no adverb idea in them. They are, therefore, con- 
junctions. 

A CONJUNCTION IS A WORD THAT CONNECTS WORDS, PHRASES, 
CLAUSES, OR PROPOSITIONS. 

EXERCISE. 

102. Analyze the following sentences. Tell what idea 
is expressed by the clauses. Tell whether the connective 
is a conjunctive pronoun, a conjunctive adverb, or a con- 
junction. 

1. Justice is always violent to the off ending party ; for every man 

is innocent in his own eyes. 

2. In his high place he had borne himself so well that all had 

feared him, and most had loved him. 

3. Quarrels would not last long if the fault were only on one side. 

4. When the fight begins within himself, 

A man 's worth something. 

5. A man who has nothing to do is the devil's playfellow. 

6. If ever household affections and love are graceful things, they 

are graceful in the poor. The ties that bind the wealthy and 
the proud at home may be forged on earth ; but those which 
link the poor man to his humble hearth are of the true metal 
and bear the stamp of heaven. 

7. The woods are glistening fresh and fair as if they had been 

new-created overnight. The water sparkles with merriment, 
and tiny waves are dancing and singing all along the shore. 
Scarlet berries of the mountain ash hang around the lake like a 
necklace of coral. A pair of kingfishers dart back and forth 
across the bay, in flashes of living blue. A black eagle swings 
silently around his circle, far up in the cloudless sky. The 
air is full of pleasant sounds, but there is no noise. The world 
is full of joyful life, but there is no crowd and no confusion. 
All is fresh and sweet, calm and clear and bright. 

Henry van Dyke. 



CLAUSES OF DEGREE 77 

8. It is the Indian summer. The rising sun blazes through the 
misty air like a conflagration. A yellowish, smoky haze fills 
the atmosphere, 

And a filmy mist 
Lies like a silver lining- on the sky. 

The wind is soft and low. It wafts to us the odor of forest 
leaves, that hang wilted on the dripping branches, or drop into 
the stream. Their gorgeous tints are gone, as if the autumnal 
rains had washed them out. Orange, yellow, and scarlet, all 
are changed to one melancholy russet hue. The birds, too, 
have taken wing, and have left their roofless dwellings. Not 
the whistle of a robin, not the twitter of an eavesdropping 
swallow, not the carol of one sweet, familiar voice. All gone. 
Only the dismal cawing of a crow, as he sits and curses that 
the harvest is over ; or the chit-chat of an idle squirrel, the 
noisy denizen of a hollow tree, the mendicant friar of a large 
parish, the absolute monarch of a dozen acorns. 

Longfellow. 

CLAUSES OF DEGREE. 

103. (a) I am very proud of my mother. 

(b) He is not so proud of his mother as he should be. 

(c) I am as proud of my mother as I can be. 

(d) I am more proud of my mother than you are (proud) 

of yours. 

(e) I am prouder of my mother than you (are proud) 

of yours. 

(f) No one could be prouder of his mother than Barrie 

(was proud of his). 

In (a), what adverb modifies proud ? In (b) ? What does so 
tell in (b) ? In (b), what besides so tells how proud ? Does the 
adverbial clause seem to you to modify proud, or so proud, or so ? 
If it modifies any one of them, it must be what kind of clause ? 
What does it tell ? In (d), what adverb modifies proud ? In (e), 
what in the word prouder takes the place of more in (d) ? What 
do the clauses in (d), (e), and (f) modify? What do they tell? 
What words are used to connect these clauses to the words they 
modify ? 

Do you think you would use the word proud in the clause in 
(d) ? Is it a common thing to omit words in clauses like those in (e) 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

and (f) ? Are these words necessary to the analysis of the sentence ? 
What is this kind of omission called ? 

When two objects having a common quality are com- 
pared, an adverbial clause indicating degree is very fre- 
quent. Clauses of degree are generally introduced by 
the conjunctive adverbs as and than. 

Ellipsis of the predicate attribute, or of the copula and 
the predicate attribute, is very common in clauses of de- 
gree. Elided words must always be supplied in analysis. 

EXERCISE. 

104. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " The night was as black as pitch " is a complex, declara- 
tive sentence, — complex, because . . . ; declarative, because . . . 
The complete subject is " The night." The complete predicate is 
" was as black as pitch." The bare subject is " night," modified by 
the adjective " The." The bare predicate is " was black," composed 
of the copula " was " and the predicate attribute "black." The sen- 
tence is, therefore, of the first type. The predicate attribute is 
modified by the adverb "as." "As "is modified by the adverbial 
clause expressing degree. Of the clause "pitch" is the subject; 
" is " understood is the copula ; and " black " understood is the predi- 
cate attribute. The second " as " is the connective. 

1. The sun was never so bright, and the piney air was balmier 

sweet than dreams. 

2. Here Skugg lies snug 
As a bug in a rug. 

3. The human body is a steed that goes freest under a light rider, 

and lightest of all riders is a cheerful heart. 

4. I envy the good fortune of all walkers, and feel like joining 

myself to every tramp that comes along. 

5. A little foot never supported a great character. 

6. A plank had drifted against the bank, and upon this the little 

creature scrambled out, as dry as the cat at home under the 
roaring kitchen stove. 

7. A cold, unkind word checks and withers the blossom of the 

dearest love, as the delicate rings of the vine are troubled by 
the faintest breeze. 



NOUN CLAUSES 79 

8. A barren, stony hillside slopes gradually to the marsh where 
the wrens live. Here I was met by a fifth deceiver, a kill- 
deer plover. The killdeer's crocodile tears are bigger and 
more touchingly genuine than even the quail's. And, besides 
all her tricks, she has a voice that fairly drips woe. 

NOUN CLAUSES. 

105. (a) Many believe the statement. 

(b) Many believe that there never was a good war. 

(c) That there ever was a good war is doubtful. 

(d) The truth is that there cannot be a good war. 

(e) It is true that there cannot be a good war. 

(f) The truth that there never has been a good war 

is held by many. 

In (a), what is the object complement ? What is the object of 
believe in (b) ? Has this object a subject and a predicate ? What 
is it then ? What is the subject of (c) ? What is the attribute in 
(d) ? What is the real subject in (e) ? What use has the clause in 
(f) ? What class of words is usually subject, object, attribute, and 
appositive ? What, then, is a good name for these clauses ? 

Does that seem to you to have as much meaning as the connec- 
tives, when, if, because, and as ? Does it seem to have any mean- 
ing ? Can it be omitted from some of the sentences ? 

A part of a sentence containing a subject and a predi- 
cate, and having the use of a noun, is a clause. A sen- 
tence containing a noun clause is complex. 

A noun clause may be a subject, an object complement, 
an attribute complement, or an appositive modifier. 

Most noun clauses are introduced by that. When the 
word that is used to introduce a noun clause, " That » 
it has no meaning or connective value. It is Noun dUClng 
termed an introductory word. Clauses. 

Many noun clauses have no introductory word. In the 

illustrative sentences, " that " could be omitted from all 

except (c) and (f). 

A CLAUSE IS A PART OF A SENTENCE CONTAINING A SUBJECT 
AND A PREDICATE, AND HAVING THE USE OF AN ADJECTIVE, AN 
ADVERB, OR A NOUN. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A SIMPLE SENTENCE IS ONE THAT CONTAINS BUT ONE SUB- 
JECT AND PREDICATE, EITHER OF WHICH MAY BE COMPOUND. 

A COMPOUND SENTENCE IS ONE THAT CONTAINS TWO OR MORE 
INDEPENDENT STATEMENTS, OR PROPOSITIONS. 

A COMPLEX SENTENCE IS ONE THAT CONTAINS ONE INDEPEND- 
ENT PROPOSITION AND ONE OR MORE CLAUSES, 

Sometimes one of the independent propositions of a 
compound sentence is modified by a clause, and so is com- 
plex. In sucli a case the sentence is said to be com- 
pound-complex . 

Example. It is not work that kills men ; it is worry. 

NOUN CLAUSES AS ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 

106. If we arrange the sentences containing noun clauses 
under their types, the relation of the clause to the whole 
sentence will be clear. 



First Type. 






subject. 


COPULA. 


PREDICATE ATTRIBU1 


(a) That there ever 






was a good war 


is 


doubtful. 


(b) The truth 


is 


that there cannot 
be a good war. 


(c) It (that there cannot 






be a good war) 


is 


true. 



Second Type. 

subject. copula-attribute. 

(d) The truth (that there 

never was a good war) is held. 

Third Type, 
subject. copula-attribute. object complement. 

(e) Many believe that there never was a good war. 

The subject of the sentence in (a) is " That there ever 
was a good war." It is the complete subject, and it is 
the bare subject. The noun clause is one of the necessary 
elements of a sentence. 



ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES 81 

In (e), the sentence lacks an essential element without 
the noun clause ; it lacks the object complement. 

In (b), the noun clause is the attribute complement, 
one of the necessary elements of a sentence. 

In (c), the noun clause is the real subject, a necessary 
element of the sentence. 

In (d), the noun clause is an appositive modifier of a 
noun. 

EXERCISE. 

107. Frame a sentence about printing that shall have a 
noun clause used as a subject ; about the Suez canal that 
shall have a noun clause as object ; about air-ships that 
shall have a noun clause used as attribute complement ; 
about a fact that shall have a noun clause as appositive 
modifier. 

EXERCISE. 

108. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " That there ever was a good war is doubtful " is a com- 
plex, declarative sentence, — complex, because . . .; declarative, be- 
cause . . . The complete subject is " That there ever was a good 
war" ; the complete predicate is "is doubtful" ; composed of the 
copula " is " and the predicate attribute " doubtful." The sentence is, 
therefore, of the first type. Both copula and attribute are unmodi- 
fied. Of the noun clause the complete subject is " a good war " ; and 
the complete predicate is "was ever." The bare subject is " war," 
modified by the adjectives "a" and "good." The bare predicate 
is the copula-attribute " was." It is modified by the adverb " ever." 
" There " is an introductory word ; and " That " introduces the noun 
clause. 

Note. When the verb is or was denotes the attribute of existence, 
the verb is attributive, and forms the copula-attribute of a sentence. 
This sentence might read, " That a good war ever existed is doubt- 
ful." 

1. That the sun is a globe of molten matter is generally believed. 

2. Cornwallis learned too late that Washington was marching 

toward Yorktown. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3. Observers have found that great flocks of migratory birds fly 

at night. 

4. Money is not essential to a gentleman. 

5. It is now conceded that the United States will soon lead the 

whole world in commerce. 

6. The story was spread that they had mysteriously disappeared. 

7. One hardly knew that such poverty existed. 

8. A gentleman never dodges ; his eyes look straight forward. 

9. Emerson said that great men write their names on the world. 

10. Caesar is born, and for ages we have a Roman Empire. 

11. Statistics show that every third generation is a ditch-digger. 

12. He spake well who said that graves are the footsteps of 

angels. 

13. And 'tis my faith that ev'ry flower 

Enjoys the air it breathes. 

14. The night was thick and hazy 
When the Piccadilly Daisy 

Carried down the crew and captain in the sea ; 

And I think the water drowned 'em, 

For they never, never found 'em, 
And I know they did n't come ashore with me. 

NOUN CLAUSES. 

109. (a) " Will they be Indians ? " inquired my brother. 

(b) "They won't be Indians," I replied at last. 

(c) " Are you quite sure ? " Harold asked. 

(d) " Quite," I answered. 

(e) My brother said that they would not be Indians. 

What is the subject of sentence (a) ? the object complement ? Is 
the object a phrase or a clause ? What is the object complement in 
(b) ? in (c) ? in (d) ? in (e) ? What kind of sentences are they 
all ? What kind of quotations are in the first four sentences ? in the 
last ? 

In reported conversation the words that are spoken 
usually form noun clauses that are object complements. 
This is true whether the report gives the exact words of 
the speaker or not ; that is, whether it is a direct or an 
indirect quotation. 



NOUN CLAUSES 83 

In conversation people omit many words. In (d), the 
full sentence would be " ' I am quite sure,' I answered." 
Elided words must be supplied in analysis. 

EXERCISE. 

110. Analyze the following sentences. 

1. " Diligence is the mother of good luck," said Franklin. 

2. The Venerable Bede was called the " Father of English 

Prose." 

3. He translated the Gospel of St. John into English so that the 

uneducated read it. 

4. He worked on this translation until the last day of his life. 

5. At last, when evening came, he closed his eyes in weariness. 

6. The young man said, " There is yet one sentence, dear mas- 

ter." 

7. " Take your pen and write quickly," said Bede. 

8. " Now it is finished," said the youth. 

9. " Yes, it is finished," answered Bede. 

10. He turned to the altar, chanted a few words of praise to God, 
and closed his eyes forever. 

INDIRECT QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSES. 
111. (a) Is he rich ? (h) Say if he be rich. 

(b) Is it so ? (i) Tell me whether it is so. 

(c) Who goes there ? (j) I must know who goes there. 

(d) What are you doing? (k) The question is what are you 

doing. 

(e) Where has he been ? (1) He told me where he had 

been. 

(f) Why do birds sing ? (m) They have no sense of why 

they sing. 

(g) Why did he do it ? (n) It is a question why he did it. 

In the first column are direct questions ; in the other 
the same questions are found in an indirect form. Indi- 
rect questions are noun clauses. They may be object 
complements, as in (h), (i), (j), and (1) ; real subject, as 
in (n) ; attribute complement, as in (k) ; principal term 
of a prepositional phrase, as in (m). 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

When the question is about the truth of the assertion made by the 
copula, the indirect question has an introductory word if or whether. 
Other questions have the same interrogative word, whether the ques- 
tion is direct or indirect ; and the interrogative word — pronoun, 
adjective, or adverb — has the same use, whether the question is 
direct or indirect. The verb of which a quotation or a question is 
the object complement usually belongs to one of these three classes : 
it is 

1. a verb of saying or speaking ; as, tells, asks, answers ; 

2. a verb denoting some action of the senses, as, hears, sees ; 

3. a verb denoting some action of the mind ; as, thinks, believes. 

EXERCISE. 

112. Write direct questions about the following sub- 
jects : surgery, General Wolfe, France, Cubans, a 
Scotch collie, homing pigeons, graphite, a stream, 
Eiffel tower. 

Change the sentences which you have made so that the 
questions will be indirect. Use three of the indirect 
questions as object complements ; three as subjects ; two 
as attribute complements. 

EXERCISE. 

113. Analyze the following sentences. 

1. Tell me who were there. 

2. Show me what you have in yonr pockets. 

3. He did not understand how a balloon floated. 

4. It 's surprising to me how my nephew despises little girls. 

5. Tom proved that he had in him the lasting stuff of a true man 

and a hero. 

6. I knew how sweet the water tasted from that kind of a cup. 

7. It is wonderful bow soon a piano gets iuto a log hut on the 

frontier. 

8. Over in the meadow, 

In a hole in a tree, 
Lived a mother-bluebird 

And her little bluebirds three. 



PARTICIPLES 85 

Sing ! " said the mother ; 

" We sing," said the three ; 
So they sang and were glad, 

In the hole in the tree. 

Over in the meadow, 

Where the clear pools shine, 
Lived a green mother-frog 

And her little froggies nine. 
Croak ! " said the mother ; 

" We croak," said the nine ; 
So they croaked and they plashed, 

Where the clear pools shine. 



PARTICIPLES. 

114. (a) The United States, stretching along the coast, was still 
a child among nations. 

(b) Being wise and honest, having learned tact and patience 

from the trials of the Revolution, Washington was 
well fitted for the duties now laid upon him. 

(c) Having elected him President, the people gave him their 

loyal support. 

What is the bare subject and predicate of (a) ? What phrase 
modifies the bare subject ? What is the leading word of this phrase ? 
From what part of speech is stretching derived ? What modifies 
stretching ? 

In (b), what does the phrase Being wise and honest modify ? 
What is the leading word of this phrase ? From what is it derived ? 
In the sentence "Washington was wise and honest," what is the 
construction of " wise and honest " ? "Wise and honest in the 
phrase have the same relation to Being as they have to " was " 
in the sentence. " Stretching " and " Being " are both derived 
from verbs ; they retain some of the characteristics of verbs, 
but they modify nouns, and are, therefore, adjective modi- 
fiers. Such words are called participles. 

In (b), having learned tact and patience describes whom? 
What are the leading words ? What is their object complement ? 
These words together have, then, some of the characteristics of a 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

verb-phrase, but they modify a noun, and so have the use of an 
adjective. They are a verbal adjective, or a participle. 

Is laid, in (b), a verbal adjective ? Show its verbal character- 
istics and its adjective use. What is it, then ? 

In (c), Having elected describes whom ? What relation has 
him to this participle ? What relation has President to this 
participle ? What characteristics of a verb has this participle? 

What three kinds of complements may follow a participle ? Mav 
a participle be modified as a verb is modified ? What may a par- 
ticiple modify ? 

A participle is derived from a verb : it may be modified 
like a verb ; it may be completed by an attribute, object, 
or objective complement : and it is an adjective modifier 
of a noun or pronoun. 

A PAKTICIPLE IS A VERBAL ADJECTIVE. 

A phrase in which the leading word is a participle is 
called a participial phrase. 

EXERCISE. 

115. Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. 

Model. " Having elected him President, the people gave him 
their loyal support " is a simple, declarative sentence. The com- 
plete subject is " the people, Having elected him President ; " and 
the complete predicate is " gave him their loyal support." The bare 
subject is " people," modified by the adjective " the," and the parti- 
cipial phrase " Having elected him President." Of this phrase the 
base is "Having elected." The participle is completed by the object 
complement " him " and the objective complement " President." 
The bare predicate is " gave support," composed of the copula- 
attribute " gave " and the object complement " support." The sen- 
tence is, therefore, of the third type. " Gave " is modified by the 
indirect object " him." " Support " is modified by the adjective 
" loyal " and the possessive " their." 

1. A penny saved is a penny earned. 

2. The valley, stretching far below, is white with blossoming 

cherrv-trees. 



INFINITIVES 87 

3. God is a shower to the heart burned up with grief. 

4. God is a sun to the face deluged with tears. 

5. Kindled by the smile of his celestial mistress, Marquette knew 

no fear. 

6. Plying their paddles, they passed the Straits of Mackinac. 

7. On either hand rolled the prairie, dotted with groves, brows- 

ing elk, and deer. 

8. They glided calmly down the tranquil stream, by islands 

choked with trees and matted with entangling vines. 

9. Before them a wide and rapid current coursed athwart their 

way, by the foot of lofty heights wrapped thick in forests. 

10. They steered their canoes on the eddies of the Mississippi. 

11. Having gained truth, keep truth. 

12. The tongue is ever turning to the aching tooth. 

13. A poor man served by thee shall make thee rich. 
11. A sick man helped by thee shall make thee strong. 

15. A child's kiss set on thy sighing lips shall make thee glad. 

16. Up from the meadows, rich with corn, 
Clear in the cool September morn, 

The clustered spires of Frederick stand, 
Green-walled by the hills of Maryland. 

Whittier. 

INFINITIVES. 

116. (a) To yield is often a mark of strength. 

(b) To be prejudiced is to be weak. 

(c) Learn of the little nautilus to sail. 

(d) My father taught me to know things definitely. 

(e) To make a shiftless boy a thrifty man requires skill and 

patience. 

From what part of speech are be, sail, know, derived ? In (d), 
what does definitely modify ? What is things the object of ? In 
(e), what is the object of make ? What is the objective comple- 
ment ? What class of words are completed by object and objective 
complements ? These words, then, have some of the characteristics 
of a verb. 

In (b), what is the relation of -wreak to be ? Think of the sen- 
tence " He is weak." What relation has prejudiced to be ? This 
form of the verb may be completed by an attribute complement. 

What is the subject of (a) ? of (b) ? of (e) ? What is the object 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

of Learn in (c) ? of taught in (d) ? What is the attribute com- 
plement of is in (b) ? What words are usually subjects and objects ? 
Then these words, which have many characteristics of verbs, 
have the uses of nouns. They are verbal nouns, and are 
called infinitives. 

AN INFINITIVE IS A VERBAL NOUN. 

An infinitive, like a noun, may be used as 

1. a subject ; 

2. an object complement ; 

3. an attribute complement. 

An infinitive, like a verb, may itself be completed by 

1. an object complement ; 

2. an attribute complement ; 

3. an objective complement. 

An infinitive, like a verb, may be modified by 

1. an abverb ; 

2. an adverbial phrase ; 

3. an adverbial clause. 

EXERCISE. 

117. Frame two sentences in which an infinitive is 
subject ; two in which it is object ; two in which it is an 
attribute. In one of these sentences have the infinitive 
completed by an attribute complement ; in one by an 
object complement ; in one by an objective complement. 

EXERCISE. 

118. Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. 

Model. " My father taught me to know things definitely " is 
a simple, declarative sentence. The complete subject is " My 
father " ; and the complete predicate is " taught me to know things 
definitely." The bare subject is " father," modified by the posses- 
sive modifier " My." The bare predicate is " taught to know things 
definitely," composed of the copula-attribute " taught " and the object 
complement, " to know things definitely," The sentence is, there- 



INFINITIVES ENDING IN ING OR GERUNDS 89 

fore, of the third type. " Taught " is modified by the indirect 
object " me." " To know " is completed by the object complement 
" things " ; and it is modified by the adverb " definitely." 

1. The House of Representatives refused to pass bills of supply. 

2. To get good out of all things and all men is the mark of a 

great man. 

3. To select the second best in life is to dull one's instincts for 

higher things. 

4. It is not easy to feel honest joy at the success of another. 

5. The king meant to try the question with America. 

6. The people refused to pay taxes. 

7. To lose one's temper is to weaken one's power. 

8. To lose courage is to grow old before one's time. 

9. To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die. 



INFINITIVES ENDING IN ING OR GERUNDS. 

119. (a) Rhyming easily does not make a poet. 

(b) Reading good stories is profitable. 

(c) Being well is life's greatest blessing. 

(d) We learn writing only by persistent practice. 

(e) By making Lincoln President, the people showed their 

trust in plain common-sense. 

(f) Doing nothing for others is the undoing of ourselves. 

(g) Religion is using everything for God. 

Find in each sentence a word derived from a verb. Show that 
each of these words still retains some of the characteristics of a 
verb. 

What is the subject of (a) ? of (b) ? of (c) ? of (f) ? What is 
the object complement in (d) ? the attribute in (g) ? the principal 
word of the first prepositional phrase in (e) ? All these words have 
noun uses. They are verbal nouns, or infinitives. 

Infinitives that end in itig are called gerunds. 

Care must be taken to distinguish gerunds from par- 
ticiples. A participle is an adjective ; a gerund is a noun. 
The use of a word, not its spelling, determines what it is 
in each case. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE. 

120. Analyze the following sentences. After analysis, 
select the participles and gerunds, giving the reason for 
your classification. 

Model. " Next to being a great poet is tbe power of understand- 
ing one " is a simple, declarative sentence. The complete subject is 
"the power of understanding one"; and the complete predicate is 
"is next to being a great poet." The bare subject is " power." It 
is modified by the adjective " the" and the prepositional phrase "of 
understanding one." " Understanding " is the principal word, and 
it is completed by the object complement " one." The bare predi- 
cate is "is Next," composed of the copula "is" and the attribute 
complement " Next." The sentence is, therefore, of the first type. 
The attribute complement " Next " is modified by the preposi- 
tional phrase "to being a great poet." Of this phrase "being" 
is the principal word, and it is completed by the attribute comple- 
ment, "poet." "Poet" is modified by the adjectives "a" and 
"great." 

1. Being perfectly natural and composed, he dispelled all sus- 

picion. 

2. We saw the big moon rising lazily and warm across the lake. 

3. By rising early, he did his day's work before noon. 

4. Hearing of this action by Parliament, the Virginia House 

passed a series of resolves. 

5. Upon hearing of this action by Parliament, the Virginia House 

passed a series of resolves. 

6. They denounced a standing army. 

7. A small guard, irritated beyond endurance, fired into the 

crowd. 

8. The first act was the Boston Port Bill, closing the port of 

Boston. 

9. Tbe second act changed the charter by extending the power 

of the crown. 

10. Town-meetings for electing officers were held only with the 

governor's permission. 

11. A fourth bill provided for quartering troops in America. 

12. In England a designing courtier was intent upon making him- 

self king. 

13. We never see the sunrise by looking into the west. 



INFINITIVES ENDING IN ING OR GERUNDS 91 

14. The fragrant water-lily lies moored in the golden August 

weather. 

15. Longfellow's tender way of doing a kindness to others was 

most exquisite. 

16. Bland as the morning breath of June 

The southwest breezes play; 
And, through its haze, the winter noon 

Seems warm as summer's day. 
The snow-plumed Angel of the North 

Has dropp'd his icy spear ; 
Again the mossy earth looks forth, 

Again the streams gush clear. 

The fox his hillside cell forsakes, 

The muskrat leaves his nook, 
The bluebird in the meadow-brakes 
Is singing with the brook. 
"Bear up, O Mother Nature ! " cry 

Bird, breeze, and streamlet free ; 
" Our winter voices prophesy 
Of summer days to thee." 

The Night is mother of the Day, 

The Winter of the Spring, 
And ever upon old Decay 

The greenest mosses cling. 
Behind the cloud the starlight lurks, 

Through showers the sunbeams fall ; 
For God, who loveth all his works, 

Has left his Hope with all. 

Whittier. 



PART II. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

121. In Part I. of this book, words have been classi- 
fied according to their uses in sentences. These classes 
are called Parts of Speech. 

A PART OF SPEECH IS ONE OF THE CLASSES INTO WHICH 
WORDS ARE DIVIDED ACCORDING TO THEIR USES IN SEN- 
TENCES. 

There are eight parts of speech : nouns, pronouns, 
adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, 
and interjections. 

EXERCISE. 

122. Classify the words in the following paragraph as 
nouns, pronouns, verbs, and the other parts of speech 
represented. 

What a pleasant thing it is to see a little country lad riding one 
of the plough-horses to water, thumping his naked heels against the 
ribs of his stolid steed, and pulling hard on the halter as if it were 
the bridle of Bucephalus I Or perhaps it is a riotous company of 
boys that have come down to the old swimming-hole, and are now 
splashing and gambolling through the water like a drove of white 
seals very much sun-burned. You had hoped to catch a goodly trout 
in that hole, but what of that ? The sight of a harmless hour of 
mirth is better than a fish any day. 

Van Dyke, from Little Rivers. 

NOUNS. 

123. You have already learned the definitions of noun, 
proper noun, and common noun. Recall the definitions. 



ABSTRACT NOUNS 



93 



(See Section 8.) Many words not usually nouns may 
become nouns when used to name subjects of other Parts 
thought. Notice carefully the sentences below, as Nouns. 

(a) None but the brave deserve the fair. 

(b) " Yes " is easily said ; " no " causes some people to stam- 

mer. 

(c) " As " will usually be found in its proper place ; " like " is a 

word to be carefully watched. 

Brave and fair are usually what part of speech ? Give sentences 
using these words as they are generally used. In (a), what use have 
these words ? Are they adjectives ? Why ? or why not ? What 
part of speech are yes and no usually ? (See Section 240.) In (b), 
what is the subject of the verb is said ? Does it name a subject of 
thought ? Then what part of speech is it ? What part of speech 
is as usually ? Give sentences with like used as a verb, a preposi- 
tion, an adjective. What is like in (c) ? What conclusion do you 
draw from these sentences ? 

EXERCISE. 

124. Classify the nouns as common or proper. The 
proper nouns should begin with a capital letter. 



child 


friendship 


eagle 


germany 


botany 


victoria 


hyena 


servant 


boston 


June 


earth 


heart 


street 


flower 


neptune 


wisdom 


Oregon 


tar 


factory 


bible 


mandeville 


acid 


word 


alps 


davy 


lovvell 


arctic 


st. peter's 


friend 


Sunday 


charles 


canary 



ABSTRACT NOUNS. 

125: (a) Praise the Lord for his goodness. 

(b) Truth needs no flower of speech. 

(c) Life cannot all pleasure be. 

(d) Izaak Walton wrote a charming book about fishing. 

In the first lesson of the book, how did the person guess the ob- 
ject ? What did he find out about the watch before he knew it ? 
Can you see yellowness ? Can you see a yellow watch ? a yellow 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

flower ? How do you get the idea of yellowness ? Can you think of 
yellowness ? Can it be a subject of thought ? What does yellow- 
ness name ? Can you see goodness as you can see a tree ? What 
can you see or hear that gives you an idea of goodness ? Can good- 
ness be a subject of thought ? What does it name ? Can truth 
be a subject of thought ? What does it name ? How do you get 
the idea of truth ? If you had never seen a living man, a living 
flower, — one living thing, — do you think you could have any idea of 
life ? How, then, do you get the idea of life ? Is pleasure the 
name of a subject of thought ? Can you see or feel a fishing as 
you can see or feel a fish ? How do you get the idea of fishing ? 
What does fishing name ? 

Look in a large dictionary for the word " abstract." What is it 
derived from ? What does each of the words mean ? Has the idea 
of yellowness been " drawn from " yellow objects ? Has the idea of 
goodness been " drawn from " good acts ? Has the idea of life been 
" drawn from " living objects ? Has the idea of fishing been " drawn 
from " the acts of catching fish ? Is there any reason for calling 
such nouns abstract ? 

AN ABSTRACT NOUN IS A WORD THAT NAMES A QUALITY, A 
CONDITION, OR AN ACTION. 

Abstract nouns are in most cases derived from other 

words : — 

1. From adjectives ; as, equal, equality ; good, goodness ; 

2. From verbs ; as, separate, separation ; deceive, deceit ; 

3. From other nouns ; as, friend, friendship ; mayor, mayoralty. 

EXERCISE. 

126. Form abstract nouns from the following words, 
stating whether the noun names a condition, a quality, or 
an action. 

1. Adjectives : kind, high, pale, elegant, nice, native, sweet, 

wise, delicate, enormous, fatal, full, rapid, true, long, broad, 
mortal. 

2. Verbs : serve, emigrate, till, produce, multiply, invade, inter- 

fere, choose, salute, indicate, deny, prove, heal. 

3. Nouns : fool, king, hero, child, rascal, martyr, leader, regent, 

man, knight, tyrant, infant, agent. 



COLLECTIVE NOUNS 95 

COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 

127. ( a ) A flock of snowbirds came fluttering down into my 
fir-tree. 

(b) The priests of Israel were chosen from the tribe of 

Levi. 

(c) And the Philistine said, " I defy the armies of Israel 

this day." 

Does the word flock mean one or more than one object ? Does 
it mean one flock ? Can there be more than one flock ? In (b), is 
one tribe or more than one meant ? Is one object or more than one 
meant ? Is more than one person meant when the word army is 
used ? Can there be more than one army ? Does each of these 
words denote a collection of individual objects ? Would a good 
name for this kind of a noun be collective ? (Look in a diction- 
ary for the word " collective.") 

A COLLECTIVE NOUN IS ONE THAT IN THE SINGULAR NAMES 
A COLLECTION OF OBJECTS. 

EXERCISE. 

128. Find five sentences in books, containing abstract 
nouns ; five containing collective nouns. Make up three 
sentences in which words, usually other parts of speech, 
are used as nouns. 

EXERCISE. 

129. Classify the nouns in the following sentences. 
Abstract and collective nouns are always common nouns ; 
so when you classify, there will be no need of saying an 
abstract common noun, or a collective common noun : say 
simply an abstract or a collective noun. 

1. Give me neither poverty nor riches. 

2. The more wheels there are in a watch or a brain, the more 

trouble they are to take care of. 

3. I like books, — I was born and bred among them, — and have 

the easy feeling, when I get into their presence, that' a 
stable-boy has among horses. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

4. Love and Death enter boarding-houses without asking the 

price of board. 

5. A sedate electrician somewhere in a back office touches a 

spring — and behold ! from one end to another of the city, 
from east to west, from the Alexandra to the Crystal Pal- 
ace, there is light ! 

6. Like an army defeated 
The snow hath retreated. 

7. Forth into the forest straightway 
All alone walked Hiawatha. 

8. Meantime the heaven wept upon our heads; and the windows 

grew brighter as the night increased in darkness. 

9. But though French soldiers show to ill advantage on parade, 

on the march they are gay, alert, and willing, like a troop 
of fox-hunters. 

10. I have always been fond of maps, and can voyage in an atlas 

with the greatest enjoyment. 

11. As I sat outside of the hotel in the course of the afternoon, 

the sweet, groaning thunder of the organ floated out of the 
church like a summons. 

12. Since the days of the first barbarian invasions, the Romans 

have gone on building with the materials taken from the 
ancient temples, theatres, law-courts, baths, and villas, 
stripping them of their gorgeous cases of marble, pulling 
down the walls for the sake of the blocks of travertine, set- 
ting up their own hovels on the top or in the midst of these 
majestic piles. 

13. 'T is now the summer of your youth. Time has not cropt the 
roses from your cheek, though sorrow long has washed them. 

PRONOUNS. 

130. A PRONOUN IS A WORD THAT REPRESENTS A SUBJECT 
OF THOUGHT BUT DOES NOT NAME IT. (See Section 10.) 

(a) It was a summer evening, 

Old Kaspar's work was done, 
And he before his cottage door 

Was sitting in the sun; 
And by him sported on the green 
His little grandchild Wilhelmine. 

(b) Call not that man wretched who has a child to love. 



PRONOUNS 97 

(c) Music was a rose-lipped shell that murmured of the eternal 

sea. 

(d) He that is stricken blind cannot forget 
The precious treasure of his eyesight lost. 

(e) What is glory ? 

(f ) Who is the King of Glory ? 

(g) To be or not to be, — that is the question. 

(h) Although the amoeba has neither lungs nor gills, it breathes 
in oxygen and gives out carbonic-acid gas, which is just 
what a horse does with its organs of respiration. 

Perhaps the best way to realize the value of pronouns is to try to 
write a sentence without them. In (a), instead of the pronouns 
referring to Kaspar substitute the name Kaspar. What, then, 
does the use of pronouns avoid ? It is very difficult to express the 
thought in (b) without the use of the pronoun who. It could be 
written, That man has a child to love; call not that man wretched. 
In what respect is the sentence with the pronoun better than the 
sentence without the pronoun ? What is the advantage in the use 
of pronouns ? Express the thought of (c) and (d) without pro- 
nouns. 

Again, when the pronoun asks a question, it is nearly impossible to 
find another way of expressing it. One could ask, " Is glory fame ? " 
" Is glory riches ? " " Is glory power ? " and so on through the whole 
long list until the right one was reached. What, then, is the ad- 
vantage of a pronoun in such sentences as (e) and (f) ? 

So in (d), it would be necessary to insert in place of he, the 
name of every person that has been stricken blind, if the same 
thought should be expressed without the pronoun. "Milton was 
stricken blind; Handel was stricken blind. They cannot forget 
the precious treasure of their eyesight lost." This one pronoun 
he, covering all persons, is used for all the names of people who 
have become blind. What, then, is the advantage of this pronoun 
in (d) ? 

In (a), what word names the object which he, his, and him repre- 
sent ? In (b), what word names the object to which who refers ? 
The word that names the object referred to by a pronoun is called 
the antecedent of the pronoun. Name the antecedents of the pro- 
nouns in (c); (d). What does that stand for, or refer to. in (g) ? 
Is its antecedent a word ? a phrase ? a clause ? Does which refer 
to amoeba in (h) ? to lungs ? to oxygen ? What, then ? Is its 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

antecedent a word, a phrase, or a proposition ? In (e), is the ante- 
cedent expressed ? Is it ever expressed when the pronoun asks a 
question ? Could it be found if the answer to the question were 
given ? 

Need of Pronouns serve two purposes in our lan- 

Pronouns. x * 

guage. 

1. They avoid needless and awkward repetition, and give 
grace and brevity to sentences ; 

2. They stand for indefinite or general subjects of 
thought. 

THE ANTECEDENT OF A PRONOUN IS THE WORD OR WORDS 
NAMING THE SUBJECT OF THOUGHT WHICH THE PRONOUN 
ONLY REPRESENTS. 

The antecedent generally precedes the pronoun ; but it 
may come after it. When the pronoun asks a question, 
the antecedent is found in the answer. The antecedent 
is usually a single word ; but it may be a phrase, or even 
a clause, or a proposition. 

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 

131. (a) As often as I came back to his door, his love met me 
on the threshold. 

(b) In friendship your heart is like a bell struck every time 

your friend is in trouble. 

(c) Two persons cannot remain friends long, if they cannot 

forgive each other little failures. 

(d) No man thinks himself covetous or stingy. 

(e) She arrays herself like the lily, 
In robes of shining white. 

(f) A dream itself is but a shadow. 

(g) An honest man is he, and hates the slime 
That sticks on filthy deeds. 

(h) Whosoever exalteth himself shall be abased. 
• (i) I will do -whatsoever thou sayest unto me. 
(j) "Who can refute a sneer ? 
(k) "What profiteth it a man, if he gain the whole world 

and lose his own soul ? 
(1) The Lord is my light and my salvation; whom shall I 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 99 

fear? the Lord is the strength of ray life; of whom shall 
I be afraid ? 

(m) That is Lee's home on Arlington Heights; this is Mt. Ver- 
non, the home of Washington. 

(n) Cornelia said of her boys, " These are my jewels." 

(o) "We always like those who admire us; we do not always like 
those whom we admire. 

(p) Many have tried to reach the North Pole. 

(q) No one can shirk responsibility. 

(r) Each must act for himself. 

(s) Night's black mantle covers all alike. 

(t) Love all, trust few, do wrong to none. 

Group the pronouns in these sentences that plainly refer to the 
speaker; those that clearly refer to the person spoken to; those that 
refer to the person spoken of. 

These are called personal pronouns, because they clearly indi- 
cate what person is meant. 

Do "himself," "herself," "myself," and "yourself" tell who is 
meant, — the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person spoken 
of ? Why might they be called compound personal pronouns? 

What kind of pronoun is That in (g) ? (See Section 91.) In (h) 
and (i), what syllables have been added to the simple conjunctive 
pronouns ? Can you think of any other syllables that are sometimes 
added to "who," or "which," or "what"? What would be a good 
name for these pronouns ? 

In (j), (k), and (1), pronouns are used to ask questions. What 
would be a good name for them ? 

In (m), what two words represent objects without naming them ? 
Do these two words point out, so that you know that one is near and 
the other far? In (n), what word does the same thing? In (o), a 
word is used to point out a class of persons, though it does not name 
them. These words are called demonstrative pronouns. 

Does Many, in (p), represent persons without naming them ? 
What words in (q), (r), (s), and (t) do the same ? Do you know 
exactly who is meant by the words many, one, each, all, few, 
and none ? They represent objects indefinitely, and so are called 
indefinite pronouns. 

Pronouns are divided into five classes : per- Classes o{ 
sonal, conjunctive, interrogative, demonstra- Pronouns - 
tive, and indefinite. 



LofC. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A PERSONAL PRONOUN IS ONE THAT INDICATES WHETHER 
THE OBJECT REPRESENTED IS THE SPEAKER, THE PERSON OR 
THING SPOKEN 10, OR THE PERSON OR THING SPOKEN OF. 

The principal personal pronouns are I, thou, you, he, 
she, and it. (For all the forms of these words, see Sec- 
tion 151.) 

The words which represent the speaker are called first 
personal pronouns ; those which represent the person 
or thing spoken to are called second personal pro- 
nouns ; and those which represent the person or thing 
spoken of are called third personal pronouns. 

Forms of the simple personal pronouns are united with 

the syllable self or selves to form the corn- 
Compound ^ 

Personal pound personal pronouns. Ihey are myself, 
Pronouns. 

ourselves, thyself, yourself, yourselves, him- 
self, herself, itself, and themselves. 

A CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUN IS ONE THAT JOINS A DEPENDENT 
CLAUSE TO THE WORD IT MODIFIES. 

The principal conjunctive pronouns are who, which, 
that, what ; rarely but and as. 

These pronouns, because they relate, or refer, to the 
object named by the antecedent, are often called relative 
pronouns. 

Forms of the simple conjunctive pronouns are united 

Compound with the syllables so, ever, and soever to form 

Conjunctive , , , . 

Pronouns, the compound conjunctive pronouns. 

AN INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN IS ONE USED TO ASK A QUES- 
TION. 

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. 

A DEMONSTRATIVE 1 PRONOUN IS ONE THAT POINTS OUT OR 
DIRECTS ATTENTION TO AN OBJECT WITHOUT NAMING IT. 

The demonstratives are this, these, that, and those. 
1 See a dictionary for definitions of demonstrate and demonstrative. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 101 

AN INDEFINITE PRONOUN IS ONE THAT REPRESENTS OBJECTS 
INDEFINITELY WITHOUT NAMING THEM. 

The indefinites in most common use are : one, none, 
few, many, other, another, all, any, several, some, 
each, either, neither, each other, one another. 

The words given here as demonstrative and indefinite pronouns 
are at times used as modifiers of nouns, and are then adjectives. 

EXERCISE. 

132. Classify the pronouns in the following sentences : 

1. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. 

2. Put off thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place whereon thou 

standest is holy ground. 

3. He smiled over my donkey-driving, as I might have smiled 

over his orthography, or his green tail-coat. 

4. No one knows the stars who has not slept beneath them. 

5. If we find but one to whom we can speak out of our heart 

freely, we have no ground of quarrel with the world or God. 

6. A person is always startled when he hears himself seriously 

called an old man for the first time. 

7. Nobody is so old he does n't think he can live a year. 

8. But what are past or future joys ? 

The present is our own; 
And he is wise who best employs 
The passing hour alone. 

EXERCISE. 

133. Bring to class ten sentences selected from books. 
Of these three shall contain personal pronouns ; two, con- 
junctive pronouns ; one, an interrogative pronoun ; one, an 
indefinite pronoun ; two, compound personal pronouns ; 
and one a compound conjunctive pronoun. 

EXERCISE. 

134. Analyze the sentences in the following paragraph. 
Classify the nouns and pronouns in it. 

The valley looked even lovelier by morning; and soon the road 
descended to the level of the river. Here, where many straight and 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

prosperous chestnuts stood together, making an aisle upon the 
swarded terrace, I made my morning toilet in the water of the Tarn. 
It was marvellously clear, thrillingly cool; the soapsuds disappeared 
as if by magic in the swift current, and the white boulders gave 
one a model for cleanliness. To wash in one of God's rivers in the 
open air seems to me a sort of cheerful solemnity or semi-pagan act 
of worship. To dabble among dishes in a bedroom perhaps makes 
clean the body ; but imagination takes no share in such a cleansing. 
I went on with a light and peaceful heart, and sang psalms to the 
spiritual ear as I advanced. 

Stevenson, from Travels with a Donkey. 

TWELVE CONSTRUCTIONS OF NOUNS. 

135. (a) Happiness is the natural flower of duty. (Section 4.) 

(b) Government has been a fossil; it should be a plant. 

(Section 14.) 

(c) No friendship can excuse a sin. (Section 30.) 

(d) God is making commerce his missionary. (Section 

40.) 

(e) Circumstances are beyond the control of man; but 

his conduct is in his own power. (Section 62.) 

(f) Pilate gave Barabbas his freedom. (Section 67.) 

(g) I '11 not budge an inch. (Section 70.) 
(h) The woodman's axe lies free, 

And the reaper's work is done. (Section 72.) 
(i) It is the lark, the herald of the morn. (Section 72.) 
(j) I find the Englishman to be him of all men who 

stands firmest in his shoes. (Section 227, 5.) 
(k) Haste thee, Nymph, and bring with thee 

Jest and youthful Jollity. (Section 83.) 
(1) He looked me all over, his good, honest, brawny coun- 
tenance shining with interest, as a boy might look 
upon a lion or an alligator. (Section 215, 4.) 

In these sentences are illustrations of all the possible constructions 
of nouns. Ask yourselves the use of every noun printed in full- 
faced type. If you do not know them all, the section numbers will 
suggest the answers. 

What four uses of a noun should you say were the most common ? 
Is there any change in the form of the noun to indicate these changes 
in its use ? What one use of a noun has a special f orm ? 



TWELVE CONSTRUCTIONS OF PRONOUNS 103 

The noun may have twelve uses in a sentence. It 
may be 

1. a subject; 

2. an attribute complement; 

3. an object complement ; 

4. an objective complement; 

5. an indirect object; 

6. an adverbial modifier; 

7. the principal word of a prepositional phrase; 

8. a possessive modifier; 
9; an appositive modifier; 

10. a vocative; 

11. a subject of an infinitive; 

12. an independent element with a participle. 

TWELVE CONSTRUCTIONS OF PRONOUNS. 

136. (a) They that touch pitch will be denied. 

(b) This is he that was spoken of by the prophet Esaias. 

(c) We learned too late the man that he was. 

(d) There is no killing the suspicion that deceit has once 

begotten. 

(e) What have they made him now ? 

(f) As governor of the state, which a political upheaval 

had made him, he displayed the same daring stu- 
pidity. 

(g) In his autobiography Franklin has told us the inter- 

esting story of his life, 
(h) The man whom life has granted health holds her rich- 
est blessing, 
(i) The distance which baby has come is long for little 

feet. 
(j) I will chide no breather in the world but myself, against 

whom I know most faults, 
(k) Shall we forget the sacred debt 

We owe our mother isle ? 
(1) Happy the man, whose wish and care 

A few paternal acres bound, 
(m) And then we saw the pope, — him toward "whom a 
great part of the Christian world looks for guidance. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(n) A proud mother watched him grow. 

(o) Caius Gracchus, whom Cornelia had watched grow to man- 
hood, was liis mother's joy and sorrow. 

(p) He having proved his worth, the rest of us slipped away 
to consider our own dishonorable part in the matter. 

(q) O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my 
fathers ! 

EXERCISE. 

137. Pronouns have the same constructions as nouns. 
In the sentences above, find pronouns in twelve different 
constructions. 

In the same sentences find all the different uses of con- 
junctive pronouns. There are not twelve. How many 
are there? Which are the most common? 

EXERCISE. 

138. Frame three sentences in which pronouns are used 
as subjects, — one containing a conjunctive pronoun, one 
an interrogative, and one a demonstrative pronoun. Bring 
sentences in which a personal pronoun is used as object ; 
a conjunctive pronoun as object ; an interrogative as 
object. Frame a sentence in which an interrogative is 
used as attribute complement. (See Section 81.) Frame 
another in which an indefinite pronoun is an attribute 
complement. Frame sentences using the four kinds of 
pronouns as indirect objects. Frame sentences in which 
each kind of pronoun is used as the principal word of a 
prepositional phrase. 

INFLECTION FOR NUMBER. 

139. Write sentences in which the word " player " is 
used as subject ; object ; principal word of a prepositional 
phrase ; indirect object ; and as possessive modifier. Write 
sentences in which the plural of the word "player" is 
used in the same ways. 



FORMATION OF PLURALS OF NOUNS 105 

In your sentences, how many forms of the word are found used to 
denote one ? How many forms denote more than one ? One of the 
forms in the singular is used when the word is a possessive modifier. 
For how many constructions has the other form been used ? Is this 
true for the plural also ? 

Frame sentences in which the first personal pronoun is 
used as subject ; object complement ; principal word of a 
prepositional phrase ; indirect object ; attribute comple- 
ment. How many forms of this pronoun are there in the 
singular ? in the plural ? 

Nouns have two forms in the singular, and two in the 
plural. One of these forms is used for one purpose only, 
— to denote possession. The other form is used for every 
other construction of the noun. 

Personal pronouns have three forms in the singular and 
three in the plural. One is used to denote possession ; 
and of the other two, each has a variety of uses. 

NUMBER IS THAT MODIFICATION OF A NOUN OR PRONOUN 
WHICH INDICATES WHETHER ONE OBJECT IS MEANT OR MORE 
THAN ONE. 

THE SINGULAR NUMBER OF A NOUN OR PRONOUN NAMES OR 
REPRESENTS BUT ONE OBJECT. 1 

THE PLURAL NUMBER OF A NOUN OR PRONOUN NAMES OR 
REPRESENTS MORE THAN ONE OBJECT. 

FORMATION OF PLURALS OF NOUNS. 

140. A long time ago, all English nouns formed their plurals by 
the addition of es to the singular. In " The Knight's Tale," written 
by Chaucer before 1400, are these two lines: — 

" And with his strem-es dryeth in the grev-es 
The silver drop-es, hanging- on the lev-es." 

The poet was writing about the sun rising on a dewy morning, and 
the two lines would read in modern English: — 

And with his streams drieth in the groves 
The silver drops, hanging on the leaves. 

Notice that the four nouns at that time had two syllables, the last 
1 ftee, however, definition of " Collective Noun," Section 127 » 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

ending in es. Later, whenever they could, the English began to 
pronounce the plural forms as if there were no e before the s. This 
gives the first two, and by far the most important rules for the forma- 
tion of plurals. 

1. When the final sound of a singular noun unites 
easily with the s-sound, s alone is added to the singular 
to form the plural. 

2. Whenever the final sound of a singular noun does 
not unite easily with the s-sound, es is added to the singu- 
lar to form the plural. 

This occurs when the word in the singular ends in s, x, z, sh, ch, 
or zh. 

EXERCISE. 

141. Write the plural of the following nouns. Use the 
plurals for a spelling test. 

Arithmetic, grammar, bench, desk, hyphen, comma, 
march, brush, box, apostrophe, lynx, lion, lioness, 
picture. 

FORMATION OF PLURALS — (Continued). 

142. 3. Fifteen nouns ending in f or fe change these 
letters to v and add es to form their plurals. 1 They are 
beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, 
thief, wharf, wife, wolf. 

4. Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant gen- 
erally add es to form their plurals ; as, calico, calicoes. 
Other nouns ending in o are regular ; as, cameo, cameos. 

Exceptions. The following nouns ending in o preceded by a con- 
sonant add s only to form their plurals : albino, alto, banjo, canto, 
casino, chromo, contralto, dynamo, halo, lasso, memento, octavo, 
piano, proviso, quarto, solo, soprano, two, tyro. 

5. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change 
the y to i and add es to form their plurals ; as, lily, lilies^ 

* The word " staff " has two plurals — " staffs," an4 " staves.'' 



FORMATION OF PLURALS OF NOUNS 107 

But when the y is preceded by a vowel, these words 
are perfectly regular in forming their plurals ; as, valley, 
valleys. 

6. Many nouns in Old English formed their plurals by 
the addition of en. Some of these retain this ending in 
our modern English ; as, ox, oxen. 

7. Some nouns form their plurals by changing the 
vowel in the middle of the word. These are Old English 
nouns ; such as mouse, mice ; tooth, teeth. 

8. Some nouns adopted from foreign languages form 
their plurals as they regularly do in those languages ; as, 
analysis, analyses ; stratum, strata ; phenomenon, phe- 
nomena. 

EXERCISE. 

143. Write sentences containing the plurals of three 
words whose singular ends in o ; three whose singular 
ends in f or fe ; three whose singular ends in y. 

EXERCISE. 

144. Write sentences containing the plurals of the fol- 
lowing words : parenthesis, datum, tableau, formula, 
memorandum, alumnus, oasis, curriculum. You may 
need to use a dictionary to learn what these words mean 
and how they form their plurals. 

FORMATION OF PLURALS — (Continued). 

145. 9. The plurals of letters, figures, symbols, and 
words, when considered simply as words, are formed by 
adding the apostrophe and s ; as, cross your t's and dot 
your i's ; give the table of 7's ; do not begin paragraphs 
with and's. 

10. Proper names form their plurals in two ways : it 
is correct to say " the Misses Brown," or " the Miss 
Browns." Of men the form is always " Messrs. Brown," 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

11. Compound nouns, made up of a noun and some 
modifier of it, form their plurals by making the principal 
words plural ; as, court-martial, courts-martial ; son-in- 
law, sons-in-law. Some compounds, however, are so much 
like single words that they are so regarded, and form 
their plurals regularly ; as, forget-me-not, forget-me-nots ; 
cupful, cupfuls. 

12. Some words ending in man are not compounds, 
and form their plurals by adding s ; as, German, firman, 
Ottoman, Mussulman, Brahman, talisman. 

13. Many nouns have the same form in the singular 
and plural ; as, sheep, deer. 

EXERCISE. 

146. Write ten sentences using the plurals of the fol- 
lowing words : pianoforte, handful, stepson, talisman, 
Brahman, Miss Jones, Dr. Little, aid-de-camp, jury- 
man, commander-in-chief, good-for-nothing. 

INFLECTION FOR CASE. 

147. CASE IS THAT MODIFICATION OF A NOUN OR PRONOUN 
WHICH INDICATES ITS CONSTRUCTION IN A SENTENCE. 

Because there are three forms of a pronoun to indicate 
its use in a sentence, nouns and pronouns are said to have 
three cases. They are nominative, possessive, and 
objective. 

A NOUN OR PRONOUN IS IN THE NOMINATIVE CASE WHEN IT 
IS A SUBJECT, AN ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT, A VOCATIVE, OR IN 
THE ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION. 

A NOUN OR PRONOUN IS IN THE OBJECTIVE CASE WHEN IT 
IS AN OBJECT COMPLEMENT, AN INDIRECT OBJECT, AN OBJEC- 
TIVE COMPLEMENT. AN ADVERBIAL NOUN, THE PRINCIPAL WORD 
OF A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE, OR THE SUBJECT OF AN INFINI- 
TIVE 



FORMATION OF POSSES8IVES 109 

A NOUN OR PRONOUN IS IN THE POSSESSIVE CASE WHEN IT 
IS A POSSESSIVE MODIFIER. 

AN APPOSITIVE IS ALWAYS IN THE CASE OF THE WORD 
IT MODIFIES. IT MAY BE NOMINATIVE, OBJECTIVE.. OR POS- 
SESSIVE. 

(It must be clear that a noun has in reality but two case forms: 
a possessive and a common case form. This last is used for all the 
constructions of the nominative and objective.) 

FORMATION OF POSSESSIVES. 

148. Seven or eight hundred years ago, nouns in old English had 
different forms for different uses in a sentence. If the word was a 
subject, it had one form; if object, another; and if it denoted owner- 
ship, yet another. The form to denote ownership in the singular 
ended in es; and this is the only one of the case endings that modern 
English has retained. But even this has been changed : formerly 
it was written ston-es, pronounced in two syllables; later it was 
pronounced in one syllable ; and at last an apostrophe was intro- 
duced to show that it was a possessive and not a plural, for the spell- 
ing of the two words is just the same. In the following sentences, 
the confusion that would result from the omission of the apostrophe 
is apparent; but by the use of the apostrophe the meaning is made 
perfectly clear. 

The dogs hear the hunters call. The dogs hear the hunter's call. 
The dogs hear the hunters' call. 

1. To form the possessive of singular nouns, add an 
apostrophe and s to the simple form of the noun ; as, 
lady, lady's. 

2. If, however, the word ends in an s sound, and has 
more than one syllable, only the apostrophe is usually 
added to form the possessive ; as, for goodness' sake, 
Xerxes' army. 

3. As most words in the plural end in s, to avoid the 
hissing sound of another s, only the apostrophe is added 
to the plural forms to make the possessive plural ; as, 
ladies, ladies'. 

4. If the plural does not end in s, the possessive is 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

formed by the addition of an apostrophe and s ; as, men, 
men's ; oxen, oxen's. 

5. The possessive of compound words is formed by 
adding the apostrophe and s to the last word ; as, com- 
mander-in-chief's, son-in-law's. 

6. The possessive of appositive phrases is formed by 
adding the sign to the last word only; as, my cousin 
John's book. 

7. When two or more nouns name the joint possessors 
or owners of anything, the possessive sign is added to the 
last only ; as, Ivers and Pond's pianos, Gilbert and Sul- 
livan's operas, Smith and Oakley's stores. 

8. If two or more nouns name separate owners of any- 
thing, or if the names are connected by or or nor, each 
word takes the sign of the possessive; as Beethoven's 
and Mozart's sonatas ; Smith's and Oakley's stores ; 
Webster's or Garrison's orations. 

9. The word of is frequently used before a name to 
denote possession; as, the works of Bach, for Bach's 
works. 

149. Sometimes it is necessary to use both signs of the possessive 
to avoid being misunderstood. For example, if you read 
Possessives " R emDran( lt's picture is one of the finest I have ever 
seen," you would not know whether it means a portrait of 
the great painter, or a picture done by this artist. To avoid this, 
both signs of the possessive are used, — the word of followed by the 
name with the possessive sign. " This picture of Rembrandt's is 
one of the finest I have ever seen " is perfectly clear to all. This 
form of expression is called the double possessive, because in it 
both kinds of possessives are used. 

In general, only the names of persons, animals, and 
personified objects take the sign of the possessive. Other 
names use the word of. We say "the leaves of the 
trees," not " the tree's leaves " ; " the seam of the rock," 
not " the rock's seam." 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS 



111 



EXERCISE. 

150. Write sentences containing the possessive of 
the following words : Charles ; Mason and Hamlin 
(together) ; Beethoven and "Wagner (separately) ; the 
first president, "Washington ; Shakespeare. 

DECLENSION. 

151. The change in the form of a word is called in- 
flection. A word is said to be inflected when all its 
forms are given in order. Nouns and pronouns are in- 
flected for number and case. The inflection of a noun 
or pronoun is called its declension. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 







SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Nominative and Objective 


friend 


friends 


Possessive 




friend's 


friends' 


Nominative and Objective 


man 


men 


Possessive 




man's 


men's 


Nominative 


and Objective 


Will 




Possessive 




Will's 




Nominative 


and Objective 


James 




Possessive 




James's (pronounced Jameses) 




DECLENSION 


OF PRONOUNS 






Personal Pronouns. 






SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 


Nominative 


I 




we 


Possessive 


my or mine 




our or ours 


Objective 


me 




us 


Nominative 


thou or you 




ye or you 


Possessive 


thy or thine, 


your or yours 


your or yours 


Objective 


thee or you 




you 


Nominative 


he she 


it 


they 


Possessive 


his her or 


hers its 


their or theirs 


Objective 


him her 


it 


them 



112 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Interrogative Pronouns. 





SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Nominative 


who 


who 


Possessive 


whose 


whose 


Objective 


whom 


whom 


Nominative 


what 


what 


Possessive 


whose 


whose 


Objective 


what 


what 


Nominative 


which 


which 


Possessive 


(whose) 


(whose) 


Objective 


which 
Demonstrative Pronouns. 


which 


Nominative 


this 


these 


Possessive 








Objective 


this 


these 


Nominative 


that 


those 


Possessive 








Objective 


that 
Indefinite Pronouns. 


those 


Nominative 


one 




Possessive 


one's 




Objective 


one 




Nominative 


other 


others 


Possessive 


other's 


others' 


Objective 


other 


others 



Conjunctive Pronouns. 

The conjunctive pronouns who and which are inflected like the 
interrogatives. That, but, and as have no inflections. Each has 
but the one form. 



USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

152. (a) Thou wilt keep him in perfect peace whose mind is 
stayed on Thee. 

(b) Hail to thee, blithe spirit ! 

(c) Open ye the gates ! 



USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS 113 

(d) He never owned the foreign rule, 

No master he obeyed. 

(e) See the sun himself! on wings 
Of Glory up the east he springs. 

(f) Each should do his duty. 

(g) The author who speaks about his books is almost as bad 

as a mother who talks about her own children, 
(h) She dwelt among the untrodden ways, 

Beside the springs of Dove, 
(i) Happy is the man that findeth Wisdom. She is more 

precious than rubies ; and all the things that thou 

canst desire are not to be compared unto her. 
(j) Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees, 
(k) The Mississippi is the longest river. Its source is in 

Lake Itasca. 
(1) The elephant finds many uses for its trunk, 
(m) This child is not mine as the first was; 

I cannot sing it to rest ; 
I cannot lift it up fatherly, 

And bliss it upon my breast, 
(n) It blew itself out yesterday, 
(o) It will be hot to-morrow, 
(p) O, it is excellent 

To have a giant's strength ; but it is tyrannous 
To use it like a giant, 
(q) Patience itself may be worn out by a constant chattering. 
(r) Napoleon himself found a Waterloo. 
(s) Know thyself. 
(t) Rembrandt painted himself, 
(u) Soldiers control themselves. 
(v) A boy has his troubles, and a girl has hers, 
(w) Mine seem more serious than theirs. 
(x) We must not yield to ours. 
(y) Each must conquer his. 

From what book is (a) taken ? Do you know any other sentences 
using thou or thee ? Do they come from the same book ? (b) is 
the first line of a poem. Can you think of another line of poetry 
using thou or thee ? 

Do we use ye in common conversation ? What class of people 
use " thou " and " thee " in their dailv conversation ? 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Has the sun sex ? Why is it spoken of as he ? Should girls do 
their duty as well as hoys ? Why, then, is his used in (f) instead of 
some other pronoun ? 

Has Wisdom really any sex ? Why, then, do we find words in 
(i) indicating the female sex ? In (j), why use her instead of its ? 

In (k), why do you find Its instead of " His " or " Her " ? Has an 
elephant sex ? Why do we use its, then ? Is it common to speak of 
a child as " it " ? 

In (n), has It an antecedent ? What will be hot to-morrow ? Has 
It an antecedent in (o) ? What is the use of it in (p) ? (See Sec- 
tion 79.) 

For what purpose is itself used in (q) ? himself in (r) ? What 
element of the sentence is thyself in (s) ? To whom does himself 
refer in (t) ? What element of the sentence is themselves in (u) ? 

What is the regular possessive of the pronoun " she " ? Is " hers " 
a possessive ? What does hers mean in (v) ? Is its use that of 
a possessive modifier ? or an object complement ? What is the 
subject of (w) ? What form of the pronoun is it ? What is the use 
or construction of ours in (x) ? Is it the objective case ? What case 
is his in (y) ? What do you think would be a good thing to say about 
these words ? 

Thou, thy, thine, thee, were once the only singular 
The Grave f° l * ms of the second personal pronoun. These 
inflection. f orms are now used only 

1. in addressing the Deity; 

2. in the serious language of the Bible or of poetry; 

3. among the Quakers in common conversation. 

« 
The plural ye is used only in the nominative case, and 

is seen only in the Bible and in poetry. Because these 

words are used only in serious language, they are said to 

make the grave inflection. 

You, your, and yours were once used only as the 

objective and possessive plural of the second 
Use of You. J r>\ 

personal pronoun. Gradually you came into 

common use in place of ye in the nominative plural. 

Then these plural forms displaced the old singulars : 

thou, thine, thee. Now both singular and plural of the 



USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS 115 

second personal pronoun is you ; but the verb used with 
you is always in the plural form, whether the pronoun 
means one or more than one. We should never say, 
"You was;" we should always say, "You were." 

The third personal pronoun is inflected for number and 
case ; and it is also inflected in the singular to Use of He 
indicate the sex of the object referred to. She - and n * 

He, his, or him is used when its antecedent names — 

1. a person or animal of the male sex ; 

2. a personified object -which by reason of its size, strength, 

or fierceness is thought of as a male ; 

3. a person spoken of without any regard to sex, repre- 

sented by some such word as each, neither, every one, 
etc. 

She, her, or hers is used when its antecedent names — 

1. a person or animal of the female sex ; 

2. a personified object which by reason of its grace, at- 

tractiveness, delicacy, or timidity is thought of as 
female. 

It, its are used when the antecedent names — 

1. an object without sex ; 

2. an object -whose sex is disregarded. 

They, their, theirs, them are used of all objects, — 
the language containing no plural pronouns to distinguish 

sex. 

Note. No other pronouns have any inflection for sex. A few 
nouns in our language are inflected, to indicate sex; as, lion, lioness; 
peacock, peahen; duke, duchess. The number of these is so small, 
however, that there seems no reason for discussing the subject of 
gender of nouns or pronouns. 

It has two special uses. This pronoun may be — 

1. an anticipatory subject (Section 79); or 

2. an impersonal subject. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

In such a sentence as " It rains," the word " It " has no meaning 
whatever. It is used with the verb to express a natural phenome- 
non. It seems almost to be a part of the verb. When used in this 
way, it is called an impersonal subject. 

The compound personal pronouns are used for two 
purposes. They are used — 

1. for emphasis ; and 

2. as reflexive objects. 

Besides the regular possessive forms, there are a few 
secondary forms that are not used as modifiers. Mine, 
Use of the thine, ours, yours, hers, and theirs are used to 
Possessive mean both the possessor and the thing pos- 
Forms. sessed. His may be used in the same way. These 

secondary forms have the same use in a sentence as the 
nouns modified would have. For example, in (v) hers 
means her troubles; troubles would be an object com- 
plement in the sentence ; and hers has the same construc- 
tion. It is a possessive form in the objective case. 

To parse a noun or pronoun, give — 

1. its classification ; 

2. its inflection ; 

3. its number ; 

4. its case ; 

5. its construction in the sentence. 

EXERCISE. 

153. Select and parse the nouns and personal pronouns 
in the following sentences. 

Model. My house is the house of prayer; but ye have made it a 
den of thieves. 

The word " My " is a first personal pronoun. It is inflected in the 
singular — nominative, I ; possessive, my or mine; objective, me; in 
the plural — nominative, we; possessive, our or ours; objective, us. 
It is in the singular number and possessive case. It is a possessive 
modifier of " house." 



USES OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 117 

The word " house " is a common noun. It is inflected in the sin- 
gular, nominative and objective, house; possessive, house's; in the 
plural, nominative and objective, houses; possessive, houses'. It is 
in the singular number and nominative case. It is the subject of the 
sentence. 

1. O thou that dwellest in the heavens ! behold with compassion 

thy children on earth. 

2. Wisdom hath builded her house. 

3. When Freedom from her mountain height 
Unfurled her standard to the air, 

She tore the azure robe of night 
And set the stars of glory there. 

4. Breathes there the man, with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land ! 

5. I travelled among unknown men, 

In lands beyond the sea ; 
Nor, England ! did I know till then 

What love I bore to thee. 
'T is past, that melancholy dream ! 

Nor will I quit thy shore 
A second time ; for still I seem 

To love thee more and more. 
Among thy mountains did I feel 

The joy of my desire ; 
And she I cherished turned her wheel 

Beside an English fire. 
Thy mornings showed, thy nights conceal'd 

The bowers where Lucy played ; 
And thine, too, is the last green field 

That Lucy's eyes surveyed. 

Wordsworth. 



USES OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

154- ( a ) "Who hath known the mind of the Lord ? 

(b) Whose servant are you ? 

(c) Whom seek ye ? 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(d) Who is he that will plead with me ? 

(e) Of whom shall I be afraid ? 

(f) Which now of these three was neighbor unto him that fell 

among the thieves ? 

(g) Which is better, — honor or riches ? 

(h) What shall a man give in exchange for his soul ? 
(i) What is life worth ? 
(j) What have they called me ? 

(k) Whether is easier, to say, Thy sins be forgiven thee ; or to 
say, Arise and walk ? 

In sentences (a) to (e), do the interrogative pronouns refer to 
persons or things ? In (f), does Which refer to a person or a 
thing ? Is the same true of Which in (g) ? Does What mean per- 
sons or things ? What word can you substitute for Whether in (k) ? 
To what class does the substituted word belong ? What, then, is 
Whether ? 

Change to indirect questions all the direct questions except (k). 
(See Section 111.) After what verbs may we look for indirect ques- 
tions ? Does the change make any difference about the construction 
of the interrogative pronouns ? Make a list of the seven constructions 
in which interrogative pronouns may be used in sentences. 

Who asks about persons. 

What asks about things. 

Which asks about either persons or things. Which is 
peculiar in this : it asks for a choice, either between two 
persons or things, or among several. 

Whether was at one time used as an interrogative pro- 
noun ; but it is rarely found so used in modern English. 
It always asks for a choice between two. 

The construction of interrogative pronouns is the same, 
whether found in direct or indirect questions. 

Which and What are many times used to modify 
nouns. These words are then interrogative adjectives, not 
interrogative pronouns. 

Example. Which path will he choose ? 

What commandment is greatest ? 



USES OF CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS 119 

EXERCISE. 

155. The model for the parsing of interrogative pro- 
nouns is the same as for the personal pronouns. (See 
Section 153.) Following this model, parse the pronouns 
in Sections 131 and 154. 

USES OF CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

156. (a) And lie is oft the wisest man who is not wise at all. 

(b) He prayeth best who loveth best 

All things both great and small. 

(c) Consider the little mouse, how sagacious an animal it 

is, which never intrusts its life to one hole only. 

(d) It had been snowing all day, which made our progress 

slow and tiresome. 

(e) Children are the anchors that hold a mother to life, 

(f) Wealth is not his that has it, but his that enjoys it. 

(g) Slight not what 's near through aiming at what 's far. 
(h) I have the same studies as you have. 

(i) Such as have pure hearts shall inherit the kingdom of 
heaven. 

(j) There is no flower but brings joy with beauty. 

(k) There never was an old man but wished to live to- 
morrow. 

(1) Any person who steals my purse steals trash. 

(m) Who steals my purse steals trash. 

(n) Anything which makes men good Christians makes 
them good citizens. 

(o) Whatever makes men good Christians makes them 
good citizens. 

(p) Whosoever hath not patience hath not wisdom. 

(q) Give him what he wishes. 

(r) Ask him what he wishes. 

(s) Tell me what he wishes. 

(t) And 't is my faith that every flower 
Enjoys the air it breathes. 

(u) The toys I played with are dear to me. 

Tell the antecedent of each of the pronouns in sentences (a) to 
(f). Do these pronouns represent persons or things ? Can you name 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

the antecedents of the pronouns in (g) ? Using the definition of 
pronoun, prove that as and but in sentences (h) to (k) are pronouns. 
Do these two pronouns represent persons or things ? Look through 
the sentences carefully, and notice where each pronoun stands in the 
clause of which the pronoun forms a part, — near the beginning or 
near the end. 

Analyze sentence (1). What one word in (m) performs the same 
use as Any person who in (1) ? This word, then, is the subject of 
the whole sentence and of the clause. Compare (n) and (o). Tell 
the two uses of "Whatever. Tell the two uses of Whosoever 
in (p). 

Substitute the words anything that for what in (q). Give the 
two uses of what in (q). Can you substitute the same words for 
what in (r) ? Does it mean the same with the substituted words ? 
Does (r) mean " Ask him this, ' What do you wish ? ' " What kind 
of question is what he "wishes in (r) ? What kind of pronoun is 
what in the same sentence ? In (s), is the pronoun interrogative ? 
or is it conjunctive ? (See Section 111.) 

In (t), what does the clause it breathes modify ? What is the 
connecting word ? Where is the connective in (u) ? (See Sec- 
tion 93.) 

The conjunctive pronoun who, whose, or whom is used 
when its antecedent names a person, or an object thought 
of as a person. 

The conjunctive pronoun which is used when the ante- 
cedent names things. 

The conjunctive pronoun that may be used when the 
antecedent names either persons or things. 

The conjunctive pronoun what may be used when things 
are referred to. 

As, when used as a conjunctive pronoun, may refer to 
either persons or things. When as is a conjunctive pro- 
noun, that or which can always be substituted for it. 

But is very rarely used as a conjunctive pronoun. When 
so used it follows a negative statement, and is equivalent 
to that not, Its antecedent may name either persons or 
things. 



USES OF CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS 121 

A conjunctive pronoun usually stands very near the 

word it modifies. This is so that there can be 

Position of 
no mistake about what the pronoun refers to. Conjunctive 

1 Pronouns. 

This places the conjunctive pronoun at the be- 
ginning of the clause of which it is a part. That always 
stands first in its clause. 

The compound conjunctive pronouns are used to make 
an indefinite or general statement. For this reason they 

are frequently called indefinite conjunctive 

, „ , Compound 

pronouns. (What and who frequently have Conjunctive 

nt- i i- • l Pronouns, 

this same use.) It is very unusual tor these pro- 
nouns to have an antecedent. The pronoun itself is both 
antecedent and conjunctive pronoun. It has, therefore, 
two uses in the sentence. Both constructions should be 
given when parsing an indefinite conjunctive pronoun. 

"What and who are interrogative as well as conjunctive 
pronouns. 

When what and who are used as indefinite conjunctives, it is 
sometimes very difficult to tell them from interrogatives. In general 
it is true that when the words, " the thing which " or " the person 
who," can be substituted for the pronoun and express the meaning, 
the pronoun is conjunctive. If the sentence demands an answer to a 
question stated in the clause introduced by the pronoun, the pronoun 
is interrogative. At times it may seem to be either, according to 
the way the sentence is viewed. (See sentences (q) to (s) in Sec- 
tion 156.) 

Ellipsis of a conjunctive pronoun used as the object of 
a verb or as the principal word of a prepositional phrase 
is frequent. It must be supplied in analysis. (See Sec- 
tion 93.) 

What and the compound conjunctive pronouns are 
often used as modifiers of nouns. In such cases they are 
not pronouns, but adjectives. (See Section 163.) 

Example. He told what stories he knew. 

Think of whatsoever things are lovely. 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A conjunctive pronoun has no inflection for number ; 

, « , , the singular and plural are alike. Its number 
Inflection of ° L 

Conjunctive i s determined by the number of its antecedent. 
Pronouns. J 

The number of an indefinite conjunctive pro- 
noun must be determined from the meaning of the sen- 
tence in whicli it stands. 

To parse a conjunctive pronoun, the same facts should 
be given as are given regarding personal pronouns. (See 
Section 153.) 

EXEBCISE. 

157. Bring to class three sentences containing simple 
conjunctive pronouns ; three containing compound con- 
junctive pronouns ; two containing who and what used 
as indefinite conjunctive pronouns ; and two containing 
who and what used as interrogative pronouns in indirect 
questions. 

EXERCISE. 

158. Analyze the following sentences. Parse the per- 
sonal, interrogative, and conjunctive pronouns. 

1. A friend exaggerates a man's virtues, an enemy inflames his 

crimes. 

2. Discover the opinion of your enemies, which is commonly the 

truest. 

3. Ah, who can tell how hard it is to climb 

The steep, where Fame's proud temple shines afar ? 

4. He that is not with us is against us. 

5. Whosoever is delighted in solitude is either a wild beast or a 

god. 

6. The hands which planted the lilies of France in the heart of 

the wilderness had never guided the ploughshare or wielded 
a spade. 

7. The song that we hear with our ears is only the song that is 

sung in our hearts. 

8. Success is full of promise till men get it, and then it seems 

like the nest from which the bird has flown. 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 123 

9. The man who in this world can keep the whiteness of his soul 
is not likely to lose it in any other. 

10. There is no royal road to anything. One thing at a time, all 

things in succession. That which grows fast, withers rapidly; 
that which grows slowly, endures. 

11. Good name in man and woman, dear my lord, 
Is the immediate jewel of their souls: 

Who steals my purse steals trash; 't is something, nothing; 
'T was mine, 't is his, and has been slave to thousands; 
But he that filches from me my good name 
Robs me of that which not enriches him 
And makes me poor indeed. 

USES OF DEMONSTRATIVE AND INDEFINITE 
PRONOUNS. 

159. (a) This is my choice of the books; I do not like that. 

(b) Some place the bliss in action, some in ease; 
Those call it pleasure, and contentment these. 

(c) One that has newly learned to speak and go 
Loves childish plays. 

(d) None pities him that 's in the snare. 

(e) None grow so old 
Not to remember where they hid their gold. 

(f) All is for the best. 

(g) All are needed by each one; 
Nothing is good or fair alone. 

(h) A little in one's own pocket is better than much in 

another's purse, 
(i) Many are called, but few are chosen, 
(j) Either of the plans seemed impracticable to the far- 
seeing Lincoln; and neither was adopted, 
(k) Not any of the numerous candidates was chosen. 
(1) Damon and Pythias loved each other, 
(m) Bear ye one another's burdens. 
What is the difference in meaning between this and that, these 
and those ? 

How many are meant by One in (c) ? by None in (d) ? None 
in (e) ? Account for the use of is in (f) and are in (g). What is 
the difference in meaning between much and many in (h) and (i) ? 
When should you use either or neither ? and when should you 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

use any or not any ? Study (j) and (k) for your answers. How 
many persons are mentioned in (1) ? How many may be meant in 
(m) ? When should you use each other and when one another ? 

This and these are used to point out things near at 
hand ; while that and those are used of things remote in 
time or place or thought. 

One and any were originally closely related ; but one 
is now used only of one object ; while we use any when 
referring to one or to several. 

Example. Any suits me. 
Any suit me. 

None, the negative of one, strictly speaking, should be 
used of but one object ; but it is now common to use none 
when referring to more than one ; and when but one is 
meant, to use the words not one. 

All, when it means everything, is singular ; all, when 
it means the whole number of things, is plural. 

Many refers to number and is plural ; much refers to 
quantity and is singular. 

Either and neither are used when a choice between 
two is offered ; one and not one, any and not any, when 
the choice is among several. 

Bach other is used when speaking of two ; one an- 
other when speaking of more than two. They are phrasal 
pronouns, and should be treated as one word. 

EXERCISE. 

160. Bring two sentences to class containing demon- 
strative pronouns, and three sentences containing indefi- 
nite pronouns. Also bring five sentences containing the 
same words used as adjectives. 

EXERCISE. 

161. Analyze the following sentences. Parse all the 
pronouns. 



ERRORS IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS 125 

1. To those whose god is honor, disgrace alone is sin. 

2. Good manners is the art of making those people easy with 

whom we converse. 

3. Come one, come all ! this rock shall fly 
From its firm base as soon as I. 

4. An idle person is like one that is dead. 

5. A man has no more right to say an uncivil thing than to act 

one ; no more right to say a rude thing to another than to 
knock him down. 

6. All that glitters is not gold. 

7. Few, few shall part where many meet. 

8. God made both tears and laughter; and both for kind pur- 

poses. 

9. Hitherto the two rival European nations had kept each other 

in check upon the American continent, and the Indians had 
in some measure held the balance of power between them. 
10. Seldom shall one see in rich families that athletic soundness 
and vigor of constitution which is seen in cottages, where 
Nature is cook and Necessity the caterer. 

ERRORS IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 

162. 1. The objective case form of a personal pronoun 
is sometimes incorrectly used as a subject. 

Example. Correct: He and I are going. 

Incorrect: Me and him are going. 

2. A nominative case form is sometimes used incor- 
rectly as the object of a verb or a prejx)sition. 

Example. Correct: He invited you and me. 

Between you and me he is mistaken. 
Incorrect: He invited you and I. 

Between you and I he is mistaken. 

3. After as or than, the same case of the pronoun 
should be used as is used before the word. 

Example. Correct : He is taller than I. 

He thought me to be taller than him. 
Incorrect: He is taller than me. 

He thought me to be taller than he- 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

4. When a pronoun is separated from the word which 
makes clear its use in the sentence, care should be taken 
to have the right case form. 

Example. Correct : I saw the crippled man who they thought 
was dead. 
Incorrect : I saw the crippled man whom they thought 
was dead. 

5. The possessive form of either a personal or a con- 
junctive pronoun never has an apostrophe. "Hi's" as 
the possessive of " He " is never seen ; but " her's " and 
" it's " as possessives are seen so often that one has to 
think whether they are not right. All are wrong. So, too, 
is " who's " for " whose." 

6. Either, neither, one, every, each, man, person, 
are all singular ; and when a pronoun refers to one of 
these words, it must be kept in the singular. 

Example. Correct : Any one in his senses would avoid a mad 
dog. 
Neither had his work finished. (See Sec- 
tion 198, 5.) 
Incorrect : Any one in their senses would avoid a mad 
dog. 
Neither had their work finished. 

7. A pronoun is to be used in place of a noun to avoid 
unpleasant repetition. But a noun should be repeated 
whenever there is any danger of being misunderstood. 
Never avoid repetition when clearness is gained by it. 

Example. Correct : Damon and Pythias were firm friends. 
Damon took his friend's place as a con- 
victed criminal while Pythias went to 
the marriage of his sister. 
Incorrect : Damon and Pythias were firm friends. He 
took his friend's place as a convicted 
criminal while he went to the marriage 
of his sister. 



ERRORS IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS 127 

8. A pronoun should never be used with a noun, if the 
noun alone is sufficient. 

Example. Correct : John did it. 

Mary, bursting into the room, exclaimed, 
" Was n't that a great fire, though ! " 
Incorrect : John he did it. 

Mary, bursting into the room, she ex- 
claimed, " Was n't that a great fire, 
though ! " 

9. The interrogative who is sometimes incorrectly used 
for whom. 

Example. Correct : Whom did he ask ? 
Incorrect : Who did he ask ? 

10. A conjunctive pronoun should be so placed that 
there can be no doubt as to what its antecedent is. 

Example. Correct : With a pipe in the corner of his jolly mouth, 
he came rolling through the door, which 
was barely wide enough to let him pass. 
Incorrect : He came rolling through the door, with a 
pipe in the corner of his jolly mouth, 
which was barely wide enough to let him 
pass. 

11. The antecedent should not be a possessive modifier. 
It leads to confusion. 

Example. Correct : The father of the boy that was studying 
Latin was a mechanic. 
Incorrect : The boy's father that was studying Latin 
was a mechanic. 

Note to the Teacher. Many examples of the errors given here 
can be found in the composition work of the pupils. Sentences 
containing the actual errors made by the pupils should be collected 
by the teacher, and these should be made the basis of lessons in 
which the reason for the change from the incorrect form to the cor- 
rect is definitely stated. A lesson a week for the last four or five 
months of the course in grammar can be very profitably spent in this 
way. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



ADJECTIVES. 

163. An adjective has already been denned as a word 
that modifies the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 
(See Section 52.) A study of the following sentences will 
enable you to make a classification : — 

(a) Long sentences in a short composition are like large rooms 

in a small house. 

(b) The iron hand is not less irresistible because it wears a 

velvet glove. 

(c) These seeds are destined to bear but little fruit. 

(d) There are no birds in last year's nest. 

(e) A child will learn three times as fast when he is intense as 

he will when he 's dragged to his task. 

(f) Soul, thou hast much goods laid up for many years. 

(g) The rich man wished to know what commandment is great- 

est, 
(h) He considered long which course he should pursue, 
(i) These are the flowers of Shakespeare, — which flowers are all 

the dear old-fashioned ones of our grandmothers, 
(j) I have learned, in whatsoever state I am, therewith to be 

content, 
(k) Wherefore let none in any wise be reckless, but calmly take 

whatever gifts the gods provide. 
(1) Sir Thomas was a man of sixty, loud-spoken, boisterous, 

and domineering, 
(m) Many active young men are enlisting for the war. 
(n) Athletic, enthusiastic, restless men are enlisting for the 

war. 

Point out the adjectives in the sentences from (a) to (f) that de- 
note some quality, or describe. In the same sentences find the adjec- 
tives that limit the meaning of the nouns by pointing out; by telling 
the number; the quantity. 

In (g), is the clause conjunctive or interrogative ? What word in 
the clause asks the question ? What does it modify ? What would 
be a good name for this word ? Is -which a pronoun or an adjective 
in (h) and (i) ? Is it interrogative or conjunctive in its use in these 
sentences ? Recalling the classification of whatever, whosoever, 



ADJECTIVES 129 

and ■whatsoever as pronouns, what would be a good name for them 
when used as adjectives ? 

What is the usual position of an adjective with reference to the 
noun it modifies, — before or after ? What about the position of 
intense in (e) ? of the adjectives in (1) ? 

In (m), what word modifies men ? Does active modify men ? or 
does it modify young men ? Does Many modify men ? or does 
it modify active young men ? Can you see any reason why there 
are no commas between the adjectives ? In (n), can you see a reason 
why there should be commas between the different adjectives ? 

Adjectives are divided into two large classes: qualif}^ 

ing and limiting. 

A QUALIFYING ADJECTIVE IS ONE THAT MODIFIES THE 
MEANING OF A NOUN OR PRONOUN BY DENOTING SOME QUAL- 
ITY OR CONDITION. 

A LIMITING ADJECTIVE IS ONE THAT MODIFIES THE MEANING 
OF A NOUN OR PRONOUN BY POINTING OUT, OR BY DENOTING 
NUMBER OR QUANTITY. 

A few words commonly pronouns are at times adjec- 
tives. "What and which may be interrogative adjectives 
in either direct or indirect questions. Which and the 
compound conjunctive pronouns are at times conjunc- 
tive adjectives. (See Section 156.) 

The usual position of an adjective is before the word 
that it modifies. This is called the attributive posi- 
tion. Sometimes the adjective is used with a p osit i nof 
copulative verb to form the predicate ; as " in- Ad i ectives - 
tense " in (e), " greatest " in (g). Such an adjective is in 
the predicative position. And at times adjectives follow 
the noun they modify ; as " loud-spoken, boisterous, and 
domineering " in (i). These stand in the appositive 
position. (See Section 52.) 

Rule. Adjectives in the appositive position are separated 
from the noun they modify by a comma. 

Rule. Commas are used to separate modifiers when they 
have the same relation to the word modified and the con- 
nectives are not expressed. 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

At times, however, a series of modifiers do not hold the same rela- 
tion to the word modified; an adjective may modify all that follows 
it, — both the noun and its modifiers, as in (m). When this is so, 
commas are not used. 

THE ARTICLES. 

1G4. Three words in very common use are a, an, the. 
They are adjective modifiers ; and they are generally 
called articles. 

Is there any difference between "a rabbit" and "the rabbit"? 
between "an ox" and "the ox"? Do you ever say "a eagle"? 
Why not ? Do you say " a historical fact " ? or " an historical fact " ? 
Looking through the sentences at the beginning of the chapter on 
adjectives, tell what is the usual position of articles. Can you use 
" the " before plural nouns ? before singular nouns ? Did you ever 
see " a " or " an " before a plural noun " ? The word " a " or " an " 
is a weakened form of the word " one." Do you see any reason why 
" a" is never used with plurals ? 

The is the definite article. It may be used with both 
singular and plural nouns. 

A, an is the indefinite article. It is a weakened form 
of " one." For this reason it is used only with singular 
nouns. 

At times the indefinite article retains its idea of number. In the 
sentence, " Twelve inches make a foot," " a " means " one." So, too, 
in the phrases, " in half an hour," " an inch thick," as well as in the 
negative phrase " not a gun," the indefinite article has a numerical 
meaning. 

A is used before words beginning with a consonant 
sound ; an is used before words beginning with a vowel 
sound. Some persons, however, use an before a" word 
beginning with h, if the word is more than two syllables 
long and is accented on the second syllable. We say a 
man, an ox, a historical treatise or an historical trea- 
tise. 

The position of the article is before the noun, or 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 131 

before the modifiers of the noun. Only in rare instances 
do articles follow adjectives ; and these adjectives p 0S i t i n of 
generally denote number or quantity ; as, half Artlcles - 
the, half a, both the, all the, many a, such a, what a. 
In such cases it is well to parse the adjective and the 
article as if they were but one word. 

The and a are not always articles. In the saying " The more 

the merrier," " the " is a word modifying " more " and 

"merrier." It is an adverb. So a in the sentence " He is "a "not* 1 

eroino- a hunting" is not an article: it is the remnant of * lw . a Y s 
s s to Articles. 

an old preposition meaning " for," and should be treated 

as a preposition. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

165. (a) The sunset clouds are red. 

(b) Her lips are redder than a cherry. 

(c) The reddest berries are often the fruit of the palest 

flowers. 

(d) It is more blessed to give than to receive. 

(e) Conceit is the most incurable disease known to the 

human soul. 

(f) The scenery in the English lake district is less severe 

and rugged than among the Scottish lakes; but it is 
more companionable. 

(g) He is least fortunate who has no work to do. 

For what purpose do we change red to redder and reddest ? 
How many objects are compared when we use redder ? At least 
how many are thought of when we say reddest ? Why do we not 
say blesseder ? incurablest ? If we wish to say that one object 
has less of a quality than another object, can we do it by endings ? 
How ? Give examples. What part of speech are more, most, less, 
and least in these sentences ? 

Objects may possess attributes in greater or less degrees. 
One object may have the attribute of redness ; another 
may possess more of the same attribute ; while a third 
may possess the most of all the objects compared. To 
indicate in what degree an object possesses an attribute, 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

the form of the modifying adjective is changed. The 
inflection of an adjective is called comparison. 

COMPARISON IS THAT MODIFICATION OF AN ADJECTIVE 
WHICH INDICATES THE DEGREE OF QUALITY. 

There are three degrees of comparison : positive, com- 
parative, and superlative. 

AN ADJECTIVE IN THE POSITIVE DEGREE SIMPLY EXPRESSES 
THE ATTRIBUTE. 

AN ADJECTIVE IN THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE INDICATES 
THAT TWO OBJECTS HAVE BEEN COMPARED AND THAT ONE OF 
THE OBJECTS POSSESSES THE ATTRIBUTE IN A HIGHER OR 
LOWER DEGREE THAN THE OTHER. 

AN ADJECTIVE IN THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE INDICATES 
THAT THREE OR MORE OBJECTS HAVE BEEN COMPARED AND 
THAT ONE OF THE OBJECTS POSSESSES THE ATTRIBUTE IN THE 
HIGHEST OR LOWEST DEGREE. 

Adjectives are compared in two ways : comparison by 
endings, and by adverbs. The endings used are er 
Rules for anc ^ es ^- The adverbs joined with the adjec- 
Comparison. ^- ve ^ Q f orm comparison are more and most ; 
less and least. 

Adjectives of one syllable, and adjectives of two sylla- 
bles if the inflected forms can be easily pronounced, are 
inflected by endings. 

Adjectives of more than two syllables, and adjectives of 
two syllables that cannot be easily pronounced when in- 
flected, are compared by using the adverbs more, most ; 
less, least. 

Adjectives of one syllable ending in a single consonant 
preceded by a single vowel double the final consonant 
before er and est. 

Adjectives ending in y preceded by a consonant change 
the y to i before adding er and est ; as, ruddy, ruddier; 
early, earlier. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 

Irregular Comparison. 



133 



A few adjectives have an irregular comparison. The 
principal ones are : — 



POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


well I 
good j 


better 


best 


bad 


■worse 


worst 


little 


less 


least 


many > 
much > 


more 


most 


late 


j later 
( latter 


latest 
last 


old 


( older 


oldest 


1 elder 


eldest 


far 


farther 


farthest 





further 


furthest 


nigh 


nigher 


j nighest 
( next 





former 


( foremost 
i first 



Some adjectives cannot be compared, because their 
meaning will not permit it. They are — 

limiting adjectives ; such as, one, first, thirty, this, those ; and 
a few adjectives denoting quality ; such as, round, supreme, 
universal. 

EXERCISE. 

166. Compare the following adjectives: ugly, more, 
generous, tired, lofty, apt, red, further, high, dainty, aged, 
honest, industrious, feeble, helpful, aspiring, worst, dense, 
heavy, flat, first, clear, lazy, noble, hard-fisted, covetous, 
pretty, open, severe, just. 

EXERCISE. 

167. Use in sensible sentences the following adjec- 
tives : well, less, much, furthest, elder, late, last, latest, 
many, next, foremost. 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. 

168. (a) Many a man thinks well who has a poor utterance; 
while others have a charming manner, but their 
thoughts are trifling. 

(b) The tender flowers, weary and faded, drooped under 

the burning sun. 

(c) Rich and rare were the gems she wore. 

(d) The task he undertakes 

Is numb'ring sands and drinking oceans dry. 

(e) The sun shines bright in the old Kentucky home. 

Which of the three positions that may be occupied by an adjective 
has charming ? trifling ? In (b), what position have weary and 
faded ? What position have the adjectives rich and rare ? Ac- 
cording to their position in a sentence, adjectives are attributive 
modifiers, appositive modifiers, or predicative modifiers. 

What qualifying adjective in (d) ? What element of a sentence 
is it ? (See Section 41.) In (e), does bright modify shines ? Or 
does the sentence mean " the bright sun shines " ? Or does it seem 
to you to partake of both ideas ? If it is a complement, what kind 
is it ? If it is a modifier, what kind is it ? If it is both, what, then, 
would be a good name for it ? 

An adjective may be used in five constructions. It 
may be — 

1. an attributive modifier; 

2. an appositive modifier; 

3. a predicative modifier; 

4. an objective complement; 

5. an adverbial attribute. 

The adverbial attribute is found after a few verbs denoting motion 
or condition. The adjective seems to divide in its modification be- 
tween the verb and its subject. It modifies both. 

To parse an adjective, give — 

1. its classification; 

2. its comparison, if it is compared: 

3. its construction, with the word it modifies. 



CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES 135 

EXERCISE. 

169. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the 
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives : — 

Model. " Joy moves the dazzling 1 wheels that roll 
In the great time-piece of Creation." 

" The " is a definite article; it modifies " wheels." 

" Dazzling " is a qualifying adjective. It is compared: dazzling, 

more dazzling, most dazzling. It is an attributive modifier of 

" wheels." 

"Of all thieves fools are the worst; they rob you of time and 
temper." " All " is a limiting adjective. It is not compared. It is 
an attributive modifier of " thieves." 

1. One swallow does not make a summer. 

2. Half a loaf is better than no bread. 

3. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! 

4. The cattle upon a thousand hills are the Lord's. 

5. It is only the first step which costs. 

6. What news on the Rialto ? 

7. The stream runs fast. 

8. Thy grandsire loved thee well; 

Many a time he danced thee on his knee. 

9. And he that does one fault at first, 
And lies to hide it, makes it two. 

10. But an old age, serene and bright, 
And lovely as a Lapland night, 

Shall lead thee to thy grave. 

11. The Roman eagles carried the Latin civilization to the shores 

of the western ocean. 

12. What man is there who will not draw his bow ? 

13. On this dim verge of the known world, there were other perils 

than those of the waves. 

14. Great was the joy that hailed his arrival. 

15. The broad, blue ribbon of the great river glistened amid a 

realm of verdure. 

16. The forest dropped its festal robes. 

17. Reeds and willows bordered the stream; and cattle and gray 

venerable horses came and hung their mild heads over the 
embankment. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

18. Sun and shower alternated like day and night, making the 

hours longer by their variety. 

19. Half a league, half a league, 
Half a league onward, 

All in the valley of Death 
Rode the six hundred. 

20. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. 

21. What a piece of work is man ! 

22. The summer's flower is to the summer sweet. 

23. Far, vague, and dim 
The mountains swim. 

24. There was not a sound audible but that of the sheep-bells in 

some meadows by the river, and the creaking of a cart down 
the long road that descends the hill. 

25. What I required was something cheap, and small and handy; 

and all these requisites pointed to a donkey. 

26. There was something neat and high-bred about the rogue that 

hit my fancy upon the spot. 

27. What a noble gift to man are the forests ! What a debt of 

gratitude and admiration we owe to their utility and their 
beauty ! 

How pleasantly the shadows of the wood fall upon our 
heads when we turn from the glitter and turmoil of the 
world of man ! The winds of heaven seem to linger amid 
their balmy branches, and the sunshine falls like a blessing 
upon the green leaves; the wild breath of the forest, fragrant 
with bark and berry, fans the brow with grateful freshness; 
and the beautiful woodlight, neither garish nor gloomy, full 
of calm and peaceful influences, sheds repose over the spirit. 

VERBS. 

170. A VERB IS A WORD THAT ASSERTS. (See Section 23.) 

A COPULATIVE VERB IS ONE WHOSE PRINCIPAL USE IS THAT 
OF A COPULA. 

AN ATTRIBUTIVE VERB IS ONE THAT IN ITSELF CONTAINS THE 
PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 

A COMPLETE VERB IS ONE THAT REQUIRES NO COMPLEMENT. 
(See Section 26.) 

AN INCOMPLETE VERB IS ONE THAT REQUIRES A COMPLEMENT, 
-ATTRIBUTE, OBJECT, OR OBJECT AND OBJECTIVE. 



VERBS — TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE 157 

If the attribute complement is a noun, the word is often 
called a predicate noun. If the attribute complement is 
an adjective, it is often called a predicate adjective. 

EXERCISE. 

171. Write five sentences containing copulative verbs, 
and five containing attributive verbs. Tell of each whether 
it is complete or incomplete. 

VERBS — TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 

172. A TRANSITIVE VERB IS ONE THAT ASSERTS AN ACTION 
RECEIVED BY SOME OBJECT, WHICH IS NAMED BY THE SUBJECT 
OR THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT. (See Section 33.) 

AN INTRANSITIVE VERB IS ONE THAT DOES NOT ASSERT AN 
ACTION THAT IS RECEIVED BY AN OBJECT. 

Many verbs are at one time transitive and at another 
intransitive. The use of the verb in a sentence determines 
whether it is transitive or intransitive. 

(a) Speak gently to the erring one. 

(b) Speak the speech, I pray yon, as I pronounce it to you. 

(c) He ran to the brook. 

(d) He ran the horse to the brook. 

(e) He ran a race. 

(f) Many men walk for exercise. 

(g) The groom walked the horse. 
(h) I have lived to-day. 

(i) He lived a worthless life. 

(j) Some persons laugh too much. 

(k) He laughed at his own folly. 

Point out the instances in the sentences in which a verb is used 
transitively and intransitively. What is the object of speak in (b) ? 
Is there any relation in meaning between speak and speech ? Is 
there any relation in meaning between lived and life ? In a diction- 
ary find the meaning of cognate. Is there a reason why such an 
object could be called a cognate object ? Ran in (d) and walked 
in (g) are used with the meaning of causing the action named. Many 
verbs take an object when used in a causative sense. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Can (j) be turned into a passive construction ? Can (k) be turned 
into a passive construction ? In the passive, what is the subject ? 
What, then, do you think is the object in (k) ? If folly is the 
object complement, is the verb laughed or laughed at ? Does 
laughed at express one definite action ? Is the action different 
from that expressed by laughed ? 

Some verbs usually intransitive may become transi- 
tive — ■ 

1. By taking a cognate object. 

(A cognate object is one that names the action or the result 
of the action asserted by the verb.) 

2. By being used in a causative sense. 

3. By adding a preposition to form a phrase-verb. 

Great care must be used to know the difference between a verb 
modified by a prepositional phrase and a phrase-verb taking an ob- 
ject complement. All prepositional phrases modifying verbs express 
some adverbial relation, such as time, place, manner, or condition. 
In the sentence, "He walked along the bank," "along the bank" 
is clearly a prepositional phrase, since it tells the place of the action. 
Again, it is generally true that when the sentence can be changed to 
the passive construction and the noun which follows the preposition 
can be made the subject of the passive sentence, the sentence con- 
tains a phrase-verb. For an example, see (k). 

VOICE. 

173. VOICE IS THAT MODIFICATION OF A VERB WHICH INDI- 
CATES WHETHER THE SUBJECT NAMES THE DOER OR THE RE- 
CEIVER OF THE ACTION ASSERTED. (See Section 36.) 

A VERB IS IN THE ACTIVE VOICE WHEN THE SUBJECT NAMES 
THE DOER OF THE ACTION ASSERTED. 

A VERB IS IN THE PASSIVE VOICE WHEN THE SUBJECT NAMES 
THE RECEIVER OF THE ACTION ASSERTED. 

Need of a ^ ne P assive voice is a convenience in lan- 

voice Ve g ua g e > because it enables a writer to express his 
thought — 

1. "When the name of the actor is unknown; 
Example. The Maine was destroyed in Havana harbor. 



VOICE 139 

2. when the name of the actor is of little importance; 
Example. The laws have been enforced. 

3. -when the speaker prefers not to name the actor. 
Example. A pencil has been taken from my desk. 

(a) A wise man governs his temper. Active to 

(b) His temper is governed by a wise man. 

(c) A jnst man gives all their due. 

(d) Their due is given to all by a just man. 

(e) All are given their due by a just man. 

(f ) Suffering makes us men. 

(g) We are made men by suffering, 
(h) Men are made of us by suffering. 

Analyze sentences (a), (c), and (f). Pick out the sentences in 
which an object complement in the active construction becomes the 
subject in the passive construction. In which sentence has the indi- 
rect object of the active become the subject of the passive construc- 
tion ? In which has the objective complement of the active become 
the subject of the passive construction ? 

An active construction may be changed to a passive 
construction in three ways : — 

1. The object complement of the active may become the 
subject in the passive. In this case the doer of the action is 
named by the principal word of a prepositional phrase. 

When in a sentence of the fourth type the object complement 
of the active, us in (f), becomes the subject in the passive, we in 
(g), the objective complement, men in (f), becomes the attribute 
complement in the passive, men in (g). In this case the passive 
verb-phrase, are made in (g), serves as copula, uniting the subject 
and attribute complement. This is the only construction in which a 
transitive verb-phrase is copulative in its use. It may well be termed 
a transitive-copulative or a passive-copulative verb-phrase. 

2. The indirect object of the active may become the sub- 
ject in the passive. In this case the doer of the action is named 
by the principal word of a prepositional phrase; and by an idiom 
of our language the direct object of the active remains in the objec- 
tive case, though in general a passive verb cannot be completed by 
an object complement. The noun or pronoun in this construction is 
called a retained object; as due in (e). 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3. Very rarely the objective complement of the active be- 
comes the subject in the passive. In this case both the receiver 
and the doer of the action are named by principal words of preposi- 
tional phrases; as in (h). 

VERBS. 
EXERCISE. 

174. Can an incomplete verb be transitive? If so, 
give two examples in sentences. Can a complete verb 
be transitive? If so, give two examples in sentences. 
Can an attributive verb be transitive ? If so, give three 
examples in sentences. Can a transitive verb ever be 
copulative ? If so, give two examples in sentences. Can 
a transitive verb be complete ? If so, give two examples 
in sentences. 

EXERCISE. 

175. Make eight columns on your papers headed 
copulative, attributive, complete, incomplete, transitive, 
intransitive, verb, verb-phrase. At the left of these 
columns make a list of the verbs and verb-phrases in the 
following sentences. Place opposite each verb and verb- 
phrase a dash in the columns naming the classes to which 
it belongs. 

Model. 

COP. AT. COMP. INCOMP. TRANS. INTB. VEEB. VERB-PHRASE. 

proclaimed — — — — 

was proclaimed — — — — — 

1. The people proclaimed Caesar emperor. 

2. Csesar was proclaimed emperor by the people. 

3. The pot called the kettle black. 

4. Men do not become rich by what they get, but by what they 

keep. 

5. He who spends more than his wages will always be a beggar, 

and so will his family after him. 

6. Whenever the snow lies long and deep upon the ground, a flock 

of cedar-birds comes in mid-winter to eat the berries on my 
hawthorns. 



VERBS 141 

7. I love old ways, and the path I was walking felt kindly to the 

feet it had known for almost fifty years. 

8. Corn-fields and vineyards grow now in deep hollows, which are 

very visibly volcanic craters whose lips were closed long 
before those of history were opened. 



EXERCISE. 

176. In the following paragraph analyze the sentences, 
except the third and the sixth. Classify the verbs as in 
the preceding lesson. 

Throughout the western wilderness, in a hundred camps and vil- 
lages, were celebrated the savage rites of war. Warriors, women, 
and children were alike eager and excited; magicians consulted their 
oracles, and prepared charms to insure success; while the war-chief, 
his body painted black from head to foot, concealed himself in the 
solitude of rocks and caverns, or the dark recesses of the forest. 
Here, fasting and praying, he calls day and night upon the Great 
Spirit, consulting his dreams, to draw from them auguries of good 
or evil; and if, perchance, a vision of the great war-eagle seems to 
hover over him with expanded wings, he exults in the full conviction 
of triumph. When a few days have elapsed, he emerges from his 
retreat, and the people discover him descending from the woods, and 
approaching their camp, black as a demon of war, and shrunken with 
fasting and vigil. They flock around and listen to his wild harangue. 
He calls on them to avenge the blood of their slaughtered relatives; 
he assures them that the Great Spirit is on their side, and that victory 
is certain. With exulting cries they disperse to their wigwams, to 
array themselves in the savage decorations of the war-dress. An old 
man now passes through the camp, and invites the warriors to a feast 
in the name of the chief. They gather from all quarters to his wig- 
wam, where they find him seated, no longer covered with black, but 
adorned with the startling and fantastic blazonry of the* war-paint. 
Those who join in the feast pledge themselves, by so doing, to follow 
him against the enemy. The guests seat themselves on the ground, 
in a circle around the wigwam, and the flesh of dogs is placed in 
wooden dishes before them, while the chief, though goaded by the 
pangs of his long, unbroken fast, sits smoking his pipe with unmoved 
countenance, and takes no part in the feast. 

Parkman, from The Conspiracy of Pontiac. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

177. ( a ) Jocund day 

Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. 
(h) I stood in Venice on the Bridge of Sighs. 

(c) Sweet mercy is nobility's true badge. 

(d) Her voice was ever soft, 

Gentle, and low, — an excellent thing- in woman. 

(e) He is a true man; and he defends the weak. 

(f ) If he be a true man, he will defend the weak. 

(g) If he were a true man, he would defend the weak, 
(h) I am no girl, to be made pale with words. 

(i) Thou art proved, I know, and I am young, 
(j) For we are all, like swimmers on the sea, 

Poised on the top of a huge wave of fate, 
(k) But Sohrab look'd upon the horse and said: — 

" Is this, then, Ruksh ? How often, in past days, 

My mother told me of thee, thou brave steed, 

My terrible father's terrible horse ! " 

In (a) and (b), is the attribute asserted by the verbs stands and 
stood the same ? What attribute is it ? (See Section 14.) If the 
attribute is the same, why is not the same word used ? In (c), is is a 
copula, joining subject and predicate attribute ; and in (d), -was is 
the copula, joining subject and predicate attribute. Why is not the 
same word used in both sentences ? 

Are the assertions in (e) statements of facts ? Does the verb is 
assert positively ? In (f), does the verb be assert positively or 
doubtfully ? Do you know what kind of man is referred to in (f) ? 
Do you know that the person referred to in (g) is a true man ? Do 
you know that he is not a true man ? What word tells you that the 
statement in (g) is contrary to fact ? In (e), (f), and (g) the sub- 
jects and predicate attributes are the same, he and man ; but the 
verb is changed. Why ? 

What is the subject of am in (h) ? of art in (i) ? of are in (j) ? 
of is in (k) ? Are these verbs really different forms of one verb ? 
Why are the changes in form made ? 

For what three purposes are verbs changed in form ? 

Verbs are words that assert. What is asserted of 
the subject may be named by an attribute complement ; 



INFLECTION OF VERBS 143 

as, Health is wealth. Or it may be named by an attribu- 
tive verb, either transitive or intransitive ; as, Health 
brings gladness, or, The dew sparkles. How- 
ever, a verb does more than assert an attribute 
of the subject ; it tells the time when the assertion is 
true. And to tell the time, there are changes in the form 
of the verb. 

Most verbs are used to assert that the relation be- 
tween subject and predicate attribute is a fact. How- 
ever, a verb can indicate that the relation be- 
tween subject and attribute is doubtful ; or even 
that it is contrary to fact. And this, too, may be done 
by a change in the form of the verb. 

And third, the form of a verb may be changed when 
its subject is changed. If a noun is the subject, the form 
may be changed to indicate a change in the Numberand 
number of the noun. If a personal pronoun, Person - 
the form may be changed to indicate the person of the 
pronoun used and also its number. The form of a verb 
may be changed to agree with its subject in number and 
person. 

The changes in the form of a verb make its inflection. 
A verb is inflected to indicate the time of the assertion, 
the manner of the assertion, and the number and person 
of its subject. 

The inflection of a verb is called conjugation. 

EXERCISE. 

178. Fill the blanks with forms of the verb run to de- 
note the present time. 



I — 


We 


You 


You 


He, she, it, the boy 


They, the boys 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Fill the blanks below with forms of the verb run to 
denote that the action took place in past time. 

I We 

You You 

He, she, it, the girl They, the girls 

How many forms are there of this verb to denote present time ? 
Which is the common form ? With what subjects do you find it ? 
In how many places do you find the other form ? Its subject is 
always what person and number? (See Section 197, 1.) With 
what letter does this verb-form end ? 

How many forms do you find used to denote past time ? How many 
forms are there altogether of this verb ? 

Can you think of any other forms of the verb run ? 

Fill the blanks with the forms of the verb be which 
denote present time. Do the same to denote past time. 

I We 

You You 

He, she, it They 

The dog The dogs 

I We 

You You 

He, she, it They 

The cloud The clouds 

How many forms of the verb be are used to denote present time ? 
to denote past time ? 

VERBS AND VERB-PHRASES. 

179. Of all verbs except be there are three forms. 1 
Two of these are used to denote present time, and one 
to denote past time. Of the two forms used to -denote 
present time, one is the common, or simple form of the 
verb ; the other is usually called the third person singular 
form, or the s-form of the verb. 

There are, however, many more than three ideas to be 

1 The grave forms ending in est and eth are not considered in this state- 
ment. 



VERBS AND VERB-PHRASES 145 

expressed. To do this the English language has made 
use of many verb-phrases. 

(a) This is Washington's birthday. 

(b) To-morrow will be Washington's birthday. 

(c) It has been a holiday for many years. 

(d) The smallest worm -will turn, being trodden upon. 

(e) Man has always wished to add something to God's work. 

(f) The sun had set in purple glory. 

(g) At the end of April the deep snowbanks will have disap- 

peared, and the first stray crocuses will have been found 
by the children. 

(h) A little fire is quickly trodden out. 

(i) To keep him from doing harm, he was kept from doing any- 
thing. 

(j) The stars will be darkened. 

(k) When soldiers have been baptized in the fire of battle, 
they have all one rank in my eyes. 

Analyze sentences (a), (b), and (c). Are the verbs or verb- 
phrases copulative or attributive ? What word names the predicate 
attribute ? In sentences (d) to (k), are the verb-phrases copulative 
or attributive ? What attribute is asserted of worm in (d) ? of 
Man in (e) ? of the other subjects ? (See Section 14.) In an 
attributive verb-phrase, which word names the attribute ? What 
purpose do the other words of a verb-phrase serve ? 

What form of the verb is be in (b) ? (See Section 116.) been in 
(c) ? (See Section 114.) turn in (d) ? wished in (e) ? What are 
the other words that name the attribute in attributive verb-phrases ? 
The last word of an attributive verb-phrase always has the form of 
a verbal, and always names the attribute. The other words of the 
phrase help this word to express changes in voice, tense, mood, per- 
son, and number. They are called auxiliary verbs. 1 

A VERB-PHRASE IS A GROUP OF WORDS THAT ASSERTS. 

A verb-phrase has for its last word a verbal, — either 
an infinitive or a participle, — and from one to three 
auxiliary verbs to express changes in its meaning. 

AN AUXILIARY VERB IS ONE THAT IS USED WITH A VERBAL 
TO FORM A VERB-PHRASE. 

1 For the meaning- of auxiliary, consult a dictionary. Is the word well 
selected to describe this class of verbs ? 



146 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



The principal auxiliary verbs are the forms of be, 
have, do, shall, will, and may. 1 

As these words are used so often, it is necessary that their inflec- 
tions be known. They are given below. 



Present. 

PERS. SINGULAR PLURAL 

1. I am We are 

2. You are You are 

3. He, she, it is They are 



BE. 



Past. 

PERS. SINGULAR PLURAL 

1. I was We were 

2. You were You were 

3. He, she, it was They were 



HAVE. 



1. I have We have 

2. You have You have 

3. He, she, it has They have 



1. I had We had 

2. You had You had 

3. He, she, it had They had 

DO. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


I do We do 1. I did 

You do You do 2. You did 

He does They do 3. He, she, it did 


We did 
You did 
They did 




SHALL. 

Present 
There is but one form for all persons. shall 


Past 
should 




WILL. 





There is but one form for all persons. 

MAY. 
There is but one form for all persons. 

EXERCISE. 



Will 



may 



would 



might 



180. In the following paragraph select the verbs and 
verb-phrases and classify them. In verb-phrases tell which 
word names the attribute and which words are auxiliary 
verbs. 

1 Many grammarians consider can. must, ought, and let as auxiliary 
verbs. For the treatment of these verbs, see Section 209- 



TENSE 147 

Day dawned at length after the feverish night, and the admiral 
prepared for the assault. Within the fortress reigned a death-like 
stillness, which inspired a sickening suspicion. Had the city, indeed, 
been carried in the night; had the massacre already commenced; 
had all this labor and audacity been expended in vain ? Suddenly a 
man was descried wading breast-high through the water from Lam- 
men toward the fleet, while, at the same time, one solitary boy 
was seen to wave his cap from the summit of the fort. After a mo- 
ment of doubt the happy mystery was solved. The Spaniards had 
fled, panic-stricken, during the darkness. Their position would still 
have enabled them, with firmness, to frustrate the enterprise of the 
patriots; but the hand of God, which had sent the ocean and the 
tempest to the deliverance of Leyclen, had struck her enemies with 
terror likewise. The lights which had been seen moving during the 
night were the lanterns of the retreating Spaniards, and the boy who 
was now waving his triumphant signal from the battlements had 
alone witnessed the spectacle. So confident was he in the conclusion 
to which it led him that he had volunteered at daybreak to go 
thither all alone. The magistrates, fearing a trap, hesitated for a 
moment to believe the truth, which soon, however, became quite 
evident. Valdez, flying himself from Leyderdorp, had ordered 
Colonel Borgia to retire with all his troops from Lammen. Thus 
the Spaniards had retreated at the very moment that an extraordi- 
nary accident had laid bare a whole side of the city for their en- 
trance. The noise of the wall, as it fell, only inspired them with 
fresh alarm, for they believed that the citizens had sallied forth in 
the darkness to aid the advancing flood in the work of destruction. 
All obstacles being now removed, the fleet of Boisot swept by Lam- 
men, and entered the city on the morning of the third of October. 
Leyden was relieved. 

Motley, from The Rise of the Dutch Republic. 



TENSE. 

181. (a) The winter season is joyful. 

(b) The winter season was joyful. 

(c) The winter season will be joyful. 

Analyze sentences (a), (b), and (c). What elements of these sen- 
tences remain unchanged ? What element has been changed ? For 
what purpose has it been changed ? 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A copulative verb may be changed to show the time 
when the predicate attribute is asserted of the subject. 

(a) The daisies peep from ev'ry field. 

(b) The daisies peeped from ev'ry field. 

(c) The daisies will peep from ev'ry field. 

Analyze these sentences. Is the subject unchanged ? Is the 
same attribute asserted of daisies in each of the sentences ? What 
is the attribute asserted ? For what purpose do we have the three 
forms, peep, peeped, and will peep ? 

An attributive verb may be changed to show the time 
when the predicate attribute is asserted of the subject. 

This change, or modification, of a verb to indicate the 
time when the predicate attribute is asserted of the sub- 
ject, is called tense. 

Corresponding to the three divisions of time there are 
three tenses : the present tense, the past tense, and the 
future tense. 

THE PRESENT TENSE SHOWS THAT THE PREDICATE ATTRI- 
BUTE IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT AT THE PRESENT TIME. 

THE PAST TENSE SHOWS THAT THE PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE 
IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT AT SOME PAST TIME. 

THE FUTURE TENSE SHOWS THAT THE PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE 
IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT AT SOME FUTURE TIME. 

(a) Now the bluebird comes. 

(b) Now the bluebird has come. 

(c) Yesterday the bluebird came. 

(d) Yesterday the bluebird had come. 

(e) To-morrow the bluebird 'will come. 

(f) To-morrow the bluebird will have come, 

What time is indicated in (a) ? What word in (a) indicates with 
certainty the time ? In (b) Now indicates what time ? Is the time 
in (a) and (b) the same ? Is the action in (b) finished, or com- 
pleted, at the time when it is asserted of the subject ? What time 
is indicated in (c) and (d) ? Is anything asserted regarding the 
completeness or incompleteness of the action in (c) ? Do you know 
in (d) that the action had been completed yesterday ? Is the time 
in (e) and (f ) the same ? Does (f) tell you anything about the 
completeness of the action ? 



TENSE 149 

Any verb may be changed to indicate that the attribute 
asserted of the subject has been completed, or will be 
completed. 

There are three tenses which indicate that the action is 
completed, or perfected, in present, past, or future time. 
They are the present perfect, past perfect, and future 
perfect tenses. 

THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE SHOWS THAT THE PREDICATE 
ATTRIBUTE IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT AS COMPLETED AT 
THE PRESENT TIME. 

THE PAST PERFECT TENSE SHOWS THAT THE PREDICATE 
ATTRIBUTE IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT AS COMPLETED AT 
SOME PAST TIME. 

THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE SHOWS THAT THE PREDICATE 
ATTRIBUTE IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT AS TO BE COMPLETED 
AT SOME FUTURE TIME. 

EXERCISE. 

182. In one column write six sentences containing the 
six tenses of the verb invent used in the active voice. 
In another column write six sentences containing the six 
tenses of the verb invent in the passive voice. 

Looking at the verb-phrases in the two lists of sentences, what 
auxiliary is used in the future in both active and passive ? What 
auxiliary is used in the present perfect in both active and passive ? 
in the past perfect ? What words are used in the future perfect ? 
These words which are always used to indicate the tenses of verbs 
are often called the signs of their respective tenses. 

What is the sign of the future ? the present perfect ? the past 
perfect ? the future perfect ? 

EXERCISE. 

183. Make six sentences by joining the following sub- 
ject and predicate attribute by the six tenses of the verb be. 

In union strength. 

Compare this list of sentences with the list in the pre- 
ceding exercise. 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Do you see any relation between these forms of the verb be and 
the auxiliaries of the passive voice ? Can you make a rule for form- 
ing the passive voice ? 

Write out the passive voice of discover, defeat, ruin, 
in the six tenses, using some form of the third personal 
pronoun as the subject. 

EXERCISE. 

184. Write sentences containing the following verbs : 
shine, conquer, chill, resolve, beautify, become, suffer, 
arouse, fancy, discover, invent, glorify. Use nouns for 
subjects. Have two sentences in each of the six tenses, 
one in the active and one in the passive voice. 

EXERCISE. 

185. Analyze the sentences of the following paragraph. 
Do not take time to analyze the phrases, unless there is 
something peculiar about them. 

Classify the verbs and verb-phrases as complete or in- 
complete, copulative or attributive, transitive or intransi- 
tive. Give the voice and tense of each verb. 

La Salle led his followers to the banks of the river now called 
the St. Joseph. Here, again, he built a fort ; and here, in after 
years, the Jesuits placed a mission and the government a garrison. 
Thence he pushed on into the unknown regions of the Illinois; and 
now dangers and difficulties began to thicken about him. Indians 
threatened hostility ; his men lost heart, clamored, grew mutinous, 
and repeatedly deserted; and worse than all, nothing had been heard 
of the vessel which had been sent back to Canada for the necessary 
supplies. Weeks wore on, and doubt ripened into certainty. She had 
foundered among the storms of these wilderness oceans ; and her 
loss seemed to involve the ruin of the enterprise, since it was vain 
to proceed further without the expected supplies. In this disas- 
trous crisis, La Salle embraced a resolution characteristic of his 
intrepid temper. Leaving his men in charge of a subordinate at a 
fort which he had built on the river Illinois, he turned his face again 
toward Canada. He traversed on foot more than a thousand miles of 



PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES 151 

frozen forest, crossing rivers, toiling through snowdrifts, wading ice- 
encumbered swamps, sustaining life by the fruits of the chase, and 
threatened day and night by lurking animals. He gained his destina- 
tion, but it was only to encounter a fresh storm of calamities. His 
enemies had been busy in his absence ; a malicious report had gone 
abroad that he was dead ; his creditors had seized his property ; and 
the stores on which he most relied had been wrecked at sea, or lost 
among the rapids of the St. Lawrence. Still he battled against 
adversity with his wonted vigor, and in Count Frontenac, the gov- 
ernor of the province, — a spirit kindred to his own, — he found 
a firm friend. Every difficulty gave way before him ; and with 
fresh supplies of men, stores, and ammunition, he again embarked 
for the Illinois. Rounding the vast circuit of the lakes, he reached 
the mouth of the St. Joseph, and hastened with anxious speed to 
the fort where he had left his followers. The place was empty. Not 
a man remained. Terrified, despondent, mutinous, and embroiled in 
Indian wars, they had fled. 

Parkman, from The Conspiracy of Pontiac. 

PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES. 

186. Insert verb-phrases in the blanks below to show 
that the action is going on, or progressing. Each com- 
plete phrase is called a progressive verb-phrase. 

Present He is ") 

Past He was I 

Future He , . . . _ . 

Present Perfeet He d ° mS hlS dUty ' 

Past Perfect He | 

Future Perfect He J 

What word of the verb-phrase is unchanged in all these sentences ? 
What part of the verb-phrase is changed to make the change in 
tenses ? Turning back to the sentences in which you used the verb 
invent in the passive, tell what likeness there is between passive 
verb-phrases and these verb-phrases. In what word is the differ- 
ence ? 

Is the verbal in a passive verb-phrase an infinitive or a partici- 
ple ? Is the verbal in a progressive verb-phrase an infinitive or a 
participle ? 

Does "doing" denote present or past time? Does "invented" 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

denote present or past time ? The participle denoting present time 
is called the present participle ; and the participle denoting past 
time is called the past participle. 

Now tell how to form the progressive verb-phrases; the passive 
verb-phrases. 

Give the progressive verb-phrases used in the six tenses of the 
verb go; wander. 

Give the passive verb-phrases used in the six tenses of the verb 
beat; lift. 

(a) It is being built. 

ySESSS* ( b > Tt was bein s built - 

in the Pas- ( c ) It will be being built. 

(d) It had been being built. 

Have you ever heard a verb-phrase like the one in (a) ? Is it com- 
mon ? Do you sometimes hear a verb-phrase like the one in (b) ? 
Have you ever heard the verb-phrase in (c) ? in (d) ? Progressive 
verb-phrases in the passive are used in only two tenses. What are 
they? 

Uses of Progressive Verb-phrases. 

(a) He writes. (b) He is writing. 

(c) He will write. (d) He will be writing. 

(e) He had written. (f) He had been writing. 

(g) He writes not. (h) He is not writing, 

(i) He wrote not. (j) He was not writing, 

(k) He will not write. (1) He will not be writing. 

(m) Writes he ? (n) Is he writing ? 

(o) Wrote he ? (p) Was he writing ? 

(q) Will he write. (r) Will he be writing ? 

What is the difference in meaning and in form between (a) and 
(b) ? (c) and (d) ? (e) and (f) ? For what purpose are the progres- 
sive verb-phrases used in (b), (d), and (f) ? 

Do we commonly use the form seen in (g) ? in (h) ? in (i) ? in 
(j) ? in (k) ? in (1) ? All these sentences contain negatives. Fo~ 
what purposes are progressive verb-phrases used in (h), (j), and (1) ? 
and in what tenses ? Try them in the perfect tenses and satisfy your- 
self that they are or are not needed. 

Is it usual to see a sentence like (m) ? (n) ? (o) ? (p) ? (q) ? (r) ? 
For what purpose are the verb-phrases used in (n) and (p) ? in what 



EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES 153 

tenses ? Satisfy yourself that they are not needed in the perfect 
tenses. 

A PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASE IS ONE THAT DENOTES THAT 
THE ACTION IS CONTINUING AT THE TIME INDICATED BY THE 
VERB-PHRASE. 

The progressive verb-phrase is formed by using the pre- 
sent participle and the tenses of the verb be. It is found 
in all tenses in the active, and in the present and past tenses 
of the passive voice. 

Progressive verb -phrases are used — 

1. in declarative sentences to indicate the continuance of 

the action ; 

2. in the present and past tenses of negative statements ; 

3. in the present and past tenses of interrogative sen- 

tences. 

EXERCISE. 

187. Give three examples of each use of progressive 
verb-phrases. 

EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES. 

188. (a) Henry tells the truth. 

(b) Henry does tell the truth. 

(c) Arnold betrayed his country. 

(d) Arnold did betray his country. 

(e) Does the world float in space ? 

(f) It does. 

(g) Did Gutenberg invent the printing press ? 
(h) He did. 

(i) The world falls not out of its place. 

(j) The world does not fall out of its place. 

(k) Gutenberg did not print a daily newspaper. 

What is the difference in meaning and in form between the asser- 
tions in (a) and (b) ? between (c) and (d) ? Is emphatic verb- 
phrases a good name for those in (b) and (d) ? 

In (b), has tell the form of an infinitive or of a participle ? (See 
Section 116.) How, then, are emphatic verb-phrases formed ? What 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

is the auxiliary ? In how many tenses is this auxiliary found ? (See 
Section 221.) Then, in how many tenses may emphatic verb-phrases 
be used ? 

Can you ask the question in (e) without using Does ? in (g) with- 
out using Did ? For what purpose are emphatic verb-phrases used 
in these two sentences ? 

Is it common to use such a sentence as (i) ? as (j) ? as (k) ? In 
(j) and (k), what is the use of the emphatic verb-phrases ? 

In (f), does the word does stand for the verb float of (e), or for 
the complete predicate float in space ? Does did (in h) stand for 
invent or invent the printing press ? Is this a common use of 
the words does and did ? 

The emphatic verb-phrase is formed by combining the 
Formation infinitive form of a verb with the verbs do, 
Emphatic does, and did. It is used in but two tenses, the 
phrases. present and the past. The principal uses of the 
emphatic verb-phrases are — 

1. to make an emphatic assertion. 

2. to ask questions about the assertion made by the verb. 

Other questions are asked by interrogative words; as, Who 
invented the printing press ? or, "When was it ? 

3. to form negative statements. 

4. The forms of the verb " do " are often used as substitutes 

for definite attributive verbs, when the meaning is clear 
from the context. In such cases these forms seem to stand for 
the complete predicate, and not for the verb alone. 

CONJUGATIONS OF A VERB. 

189. A CONJUGATION OF A VERB IS THE ORDERLY ARRANGE- 
MENT OF ITS FORMS. 

From the last lessons we learn that there are several 
conjugations of a verb. 

1st, the ordinary conjugation ; as, he learns, he learned, 
he will learn, etc. 

2d, the interrogative conjugation in two forms ; as, 
is he learning ? does he learn ? etc. 



MODE 155 

3d, the progressive conjugation ; as, he is learning, he 
was learning, etc. 

4th, the emphatic conjugation ; as, he does learn, he 
did learn. 

5th, the negative conjugation in two forms ; as, he is 
not learning, he does not learn, etc. 

EXERCISE. 

190. Fill the blanks with the ordinary conjugation of 
the verb run, carrying it through the six tenses. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

I We 

You You 

He They 

Give the negative conjugation of the verb recite, in the 
six tenses. How are the present and past tenses formed ? 

Give the emphatic conjugation of the verb slide. How 
many tenses shall you give ? 

Give the interrogative conjugation of the verb hurt. 
How many tenses can you give ? Can it be conjugated in 
the passive voice ? If so, give it. 

Note. Only forms of the indicative are to be given. 

MODE. 

191. So far in the study of verbs we have considered 
only those forms used in treating facts. Now we come 
to a few forms found in sentences making doubtful state- 
ments, statements contrary to fact, or statements of things 
only thought of. 

(a) The Lord is gracious unto you. 

(b) The Lord be gracious unto you. 

(c) The fates are favorable unto you. 

(d) The fates be favorable unto you. 

(e) I -was young. (f ) that I were young. 
(g) Thou wast young. (h) that thou wert young. 



156 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



(i) He "was young. 

(k) My father was young. 

(m) We -were young, 
(o) You were young, 
(q) They were young, 
(s) The king lives long, 
(u) The people live long, 
(w) The woodman spares that 

tree, 
(x) You spare that tree. 



(j) O that he were young. 
(1) O that my father were 

young, 
(n) O that we were young, 
(p) O that you were young, 
(r) O that they were young, 
(t) Long live the king, 
(v) Long live the people. 



(y) Woodman, spare that tree. 



Compare (a) and (b). Is there any difference in the subjects ? 
In (a), is the predicate attribute asserted of the subject as a fact ? 
In (b), is it stated as a fact ? or is it only thought of, — wished 
for ? Is (c) a statement of fact ? In (d), is the relation between 
subject and attribute something thought of, or a fact ? Are all four 
of these sentences in the same tense? What tense is it? In the 
present tense, what form of the verb be is used to express a relation 
thought of ? 

In each pair of sentences from (e) to (r), one expresses a fact re- 
lation and the other a relation thought of. In which sentences is the 
form of the verb changed to express the different relations ? In what 
number is the subject of each ? In which is the verb not changed 
with the change from a fact relation ? In what number is the sub- 
ject of each of these ? Are all of the sentences from (e) to (r) in the 
same tense ? In only one number of the past tense, be is changed 
in form to indicate a change in the relation between subject and at- 
tribute. In what number ? 

Is the wish expressed by the present tense in (b) and (d) possible 
of fulfilment ? Is the wish expressed by the past tense in (f) possi- 
ble ? or contrary to fact ? 

In the present tense of all verbs except be, there are but two forms. 
What are they ? (See Section 179.) Tell where each form is used 
to state a fact. In what tense are sentences (s) to (v) ? Which of 
these four sentences assert facts ? Which indicate a relation between 
subject and attribute as wished for, or thought of ? Are these wishes 
possible of fulfilment ? 

What kind of sentence is the last ? Is Woodman the subject of 
(y) ? (See Section 83.) If you (understood) is the subject of the 
verb in (y), is there any change of form to express a command ? 



MODE IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 157 

From these sentences we learn that there are three 

ways in which an attribute is related to a subject, — as a 

fact, as a thing thought of, and as a command. 

MODE IS THE CHANGE IN THE FORM OF A VERB TO DENOTE 
CHANGES IN THE MANNER OF THE ASSERTION. 

THE INDICATIVE MODE COMPRISES THOSE FORMS OF A VERB 
THAT ARE USUALLY EMPLOYED IN ASSERTING A FACT. 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE COMPRISES THOSE FORMS OF A VERB 
THAT ARE EMPLOYED IN ASSERTING SOMETHING AS MERELY 
THOUGHT OF. 

THE IMPERATIVE MODE COMPRISES THOSE FORMS OF A VERB 
USED IN EXPRESSING A COMMAND 1 OR AN ENTREATY. 

The subjunctive mode has almost disappeared from the 

English language. Wherever the thought can 

° . . . Disappear- 

be conveyed without the use of the subjunctive ance of the 
li ttt Subjunctive. 

mode, that mode has been dropped. We now 

have but two common subjunctive forms of the verb be ; 
they are be, and were. 

Of other verbs there is left but one subjunctive form ; 
the common form is used instead of the s-form in the 
third singular present. (For the use of the past tense in 
certain subjunctives, see Section 192.) 

MODE IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 

192. (a) If he be young, he will make the most of his time. 

(b) If he were young again, he would make the most of 

his time. 

(c) If he live long, he will make a fine record. 

These are conditional sentences. They are composed 
of two parts : a condition stated by the clause introduced 
by if ; and a conclusion. 

1 Strictly speaking - , there is no imperative mode. The same form of the 
verb is used to express a command as to express a fact. Its characteristic 
is that it has no expressed subject. However, imperative has been consid- 
ered a mode so long that it is given here with the others. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

What mode is used in these three conditions ? Is the condition 
possible in (a) ? in (b) ? in (c) ? 

(d) If he should go now, he would save time. 

In (d), is the condition a fact ? or is it something merely thought 
of ? Is it possible ? Does this form of sentence seem common to you 
for the expression of condition ? Is a sentence like (d) more often 
seen than one like (a) ? 

(e) I know the poem now, and I will recite it. 

(f) If I knew the poem now, I should recite it. 

(g) I did not know the poem yesterday, and I did not recite it. 
(h) If I had known the poem yesterday, I should have re- 
cited it. 

What is the time denoted in (e) ? In (f), what word tells you 
that the present time is denoted ? Although the present time is 
meant in (f), the verb knew is of the past tense form. Is the con- 
dition in (f) possible ? or is it contrary to fact ? Then in (f), a 
past tense is used to denote a present condition contrary to 
fact. Does this seem a change of form to indicate a change of rela- 
tion between subject and predicate attribute ? It is in the subjunc- 
tive mode. 

From the adverb in (g) and (h), do you gather that the time is 
the same ? What time ? What tense is had known ? did know ? 
Is the condition in (h) contrary to fact ? Then the past perfect 
tense may be used to express a past condition contrary to 
fact. Does this seem to you a change of form to indicate a change 
in the manner of the assertion ? Had known in (h) is in the sub- 
junctive mode. 

Read the conclusions of the sentences. Notice that the verb- 
phrases in some are indicative, and in others subjunctive. When 
the condition is possible, is the conclusion possible ? If the condi- 
tion is contrary to fact, is the conclusion impossible ? 

What tense is the verb be in (a) ? Is present time meant by it, 
or future time ? What tense is live in (c) ? Is present time de- 
noted ? What tense is were in (b) ? Is past time ever denoted 
by the subjunctive mode of a verb ? Look through the verb-phrases 
and determine whether time is definitely denoted by verbs or verb- 
phrases in the subjunctive. 

From this study we conclude — 



INDICATIVE IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 159 

1. that the subjunctive mode may be used to denote a condi- 

tion possible or contrary to fact ; 

2. that a possible condition may be denoted by the present 

subjunctive of the verb, or a subjunctive verb-phrase 
with should ; 

3. that a present condition contrary to fact is denoted by the 

past subjunctive ; as in (f ) ; 

4. that a past condition contrary to fact is denoted by the 

past perfect subjunctive ; as in (h); 

5. that when the condition is possible, the verb in the con- 

clusion may be either indicative or subjunctive ; and 
when the condition is contrary to fact, the verb in the 
conclusion is usually subjunctive ; 

6. that time is not definitely indicated by the subjunctive 

mode. 

INDICATIVE IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 

193. (i) If it is raining (and you say it is), I shall not go. 
(j) If he is young, I have been mistaken, 
(k) If he is young, he will succeed. 
(1) If he knows the poem, he will recite it. 

In (i), the condition is a statement of fact. In (j), the condition 
is assumed to be a fact. Is the condition in (k) a fact ? Is it a pos- 
sibility ? Is the condition in (1) a fact or a possibility ? What mode 
is used in all these sentences ? 

The indicative mode is very common in conditional 

clauses. It is always used when the condition is a fact, 

or assumed to be a fact ; and it is very generally used 

when the condition is possible. 

Now summing up modes in conditional 
, Summary, 

clauses, — 

1. When the condition is a fact, the indicative is always used. 

2. When the condition is a possibility, the indicative or 

subjunctive may be used; but the indicative is by far the 
more common. 

3. When the condition is contrary to fact, the subjunctive 

is always used. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Inversion ( a ) ^ eTe ne 7 0im g> ue would yet accomplish much, 
to denote a (b) Should he be young, he would not waste his time, 
(c) Had he been young, he would have succeeded. 

What kind of clauses are these ? How, then, can a condition be 
expressed ? These verbs are in the subjunctive, the same as if they 
had been introduced by the conjunction if. Condition is indicated 
by an inversion of the subject and verb or apart of the verb- 
phrase. 



OTHER USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Concessive 194. (a) Though he is young, he will succeed. 

(b) Though he be young, he will succeed. 

(c) Though he were young now, he would not 

succeed. 

(d) Though he had been young, he would not 

have succeeded. 

(e) Although he live to be a hundred years, he 

cannot wipe away the stain of sin. 

Clauses introduced by though or although express concession. 
If the thing conceded, or granted, is a fact, as in (a), what mode 
is used ? If the concession is possible, as in (b) and (e), what mode is 
used ? If the concession is present and contrary to fact, as in (c), 
what mode is used ? If the concession is past and contrary to fact, 
as in (d), what mode is used ? Do you note a similarity in the use 
of mode in conditional and concessive clauses ? 

In the use of modes, concessive clauses resemble condi- 
tional clauses. If the concession is a fact, the indicative 
is used ; if the concession is a possibility, the indicative 
or subjunctive may be used, the indicative being more 
common ; if the concession is present and contrary to 
fact, the past subjunctive is used ; if the concession is 
past and contrary to fact, the past perfect subjunctive is 
used. 

Purpose (0 J U( ig e n °t that ye be not judged. 

Clauses. (g) Judge not that ye may not be judged. 

(h) Bring it to me that I may eat. 

(i) She will bring it to him that he may eat. 



OTHER USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 161 

(j) She brought it to him that he might eat. 
(k) She had brought it to him that he might eat. 
(1) He labors lest he starve. 

In sentences (f) to (1), the clauses express the purpose of the 
action asserted by the verb in the main proposition. What conjunc- 
tions introduce these clauses of purpose ? Is a purpose a fact ? or 
a thing thought of ? What time is denoted by the verb in the main 
proposition in (f) ? (g) ? (h) ? (i) ? In the purpose clauses in 
these same sentences, either the present tense of the verb is used, or 
else a verb-phrase with may as the auxiliary. What mode is used ? 

In (j) and (k), what time is indicated by the verbs of the princi- 
pal propositions ? How is purpose expressed in clauses depending 
on verbs denoting past time ? 

Purpose clauses are generally introduced by that, in 
order that, so that, and lest. They denote the purpose of 
the action of the main verb. Purpose is expressed by the 
subjunctive of a verb or a verb-phrase. May and might 
are the auxiliaries used in verb-phrases denoting purpose. 

The present tense of the verb or verb-phrase is used 
in purpose clauses when the main verb denotes present 
or future time. The past tense of the verb-phrase is used 
when the main verb denotes past time. 

(m) Long live the king. A Wish, 

(n) May the king live long. 

What mode is the verb in (m) ? (See Section 191.) Does the 
verb-phrase in (n) mean the same ? Does either state a fact ? Do 
both assert a thing thought of ? 

A wish is ex23ressed by the use of the subjunctive form 
of the verb or of the verb-phrase. May is the auxiliary 
employed in verb-phrases to denote a wish. 

(o) I wish that I were king. 

(p) It is best that he should live out of doors. 

(q) 'T were best he speak no harm of Brutus here. 

What is the objective complement of wish in (o) ? 
What is the real subject in (p) ? in (q) ? In these three ^ oun 
noun clauses what mode is found ? Clauses. 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Verbs and verb-phrases in the subjunctive are sometimes 
found in noun clauses, when the clauses are used either 
as subject or object. 

(r) Come ere it be too late. 

(s) They shall pursue him until he perish. 

(t) This night before the cock crow, thou shalt deny me thrice. 

Time What do the clauses in these sentences express ? What 

Clauses. mo de is found in each ? C ould you use the indicative in each ? 

The subjunctive mode may be used in time clauses after 
ere, before, and until ; very rarely after other conjunctive 
adverbs. 

SUMMARY OF FORMS AND USES OF SUBJUNCTIVE. 

195. There are but three subjunctive forms of the 
simple verb seen in modern English ; and of these but 
one, were, is heard in common conversation. 

The subjunctive forms are — 

1. be, 

2. were, 

3. the common form of the verb when used with a singular 

subject. 

In addition to these simple verbs, there are a few verb- 
phrases used in the subjunctive. They are — 

1. verb-phrases with would and should, principally in con- 

ditions and concessions; 

2. verb-phrases with may and might, in purpose clauses and 

sentences denoting a wish; 

3. the past tense of any verb, when used to denote an im- 

possible present condition or concession; 

4. the past perfect tense of any verb, when used to denote 

an impossible past condition or concession. 

Would, should, may, might, and had are not always 
parts of subjunctive verb-phrases. They are at times 
full verbs. (See Sections 203 and 207 for these verbs.) 



FORMS AND USES OF SUBJUNCTIVE 163 

The subjunctive forms may be found in — 

1. simple sentences to denote a wish; 

2. adverbial clauses denoting 

(a) condition, 

(b) concession, 

(c) purpose, 

(d) time ; and in 

3. noun clauses. 

EXERCISE. 

196. Analyze the sentences. Classify the verbs, and 
give the voice, tense, and mode of each. 

1. God save the king. 

2. Come ! be we bold ! 

3. Where is the place of understanding ? 

4. Oh, that I had the wings of a dove. 

5. Charge for the guns. 

6. He wishes to go home. 

7. I '11 fight, till from my bones the flesh be hack'd. 

8. If you have great talents, industry will improve them ; if 

you have but moderate abilities, industry will supply their 
deficiencies. 

9. Over Barbara Frietchie's grave, 
Flag of Freedom and Union, wave ! 

10. Because right is right, to follow right 
Were wisdom in the scorn of consequence. 

11. Though he slay me, yet will I praise him. 

12. Speak in such a manner between two enemies, that, should 

they afterwards become friends, you may not be put to the 
blush. 

13. Shall I give up the friend I have valued and tried, 
If he kneel not before the same altar with me ? 

14. If there is anything that will endure 
The eye of God, because it still is pure, 
It is the spirit of a little child. 

15. If there be a human tear 

From Passion's dross refin'd and clear, 
'T is that which pious fathers shed 
Upon a duteous daughter's head. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

16. Our Fathers' God, to Thee, 
Author of liberty, 

To Thee we sing. 
Long may our land be bright 
With Freedom's holy light; 
Protect us by thy might, 

Great God, our King ! 



PERSON AND NUMBER. 

197. In sentences having the pronouns I, he, we, you, 
they, as subjects, use all tenses of the active, indicative 
of the verb take. 

Examine the forms, and answer these questions. How many 
forms of the verb are found in the present tense ? Can you use the 
common form in the third person singular ? Can you use the s-form 
in the first person singular ? How many forms in the past tense ? 
How many forms in the future ? With what personal pronoun is 
shall used to denote future time ? Is it used in both singular and 
plural numbers ? In the present perfect tense, where is the s-form 
of the auxiliary found ? Does this correspond with the use in the 
present tense ? How many forms of the verb in the past perfect 
tense ? Is the use of shall and will the same in the future perfect 
tense as in the future tense ? 

Long custom has established that certain forms of the 
verb shall be used with certain pronouns. Using subject 
and verb together as custom has decided is termed " mak- 
ing the verb agree with its subject." 

A VERB MUST AGREE WITH ITS SUBJECT IN PERSON AND 
NUMBER. 

From the study of the forms of the verb take and of 
other verbs, we learn that — 

1. In the present tense, the s-form of the verb is used with the 

singular of the third personal pronoun. As all nouns are 
in the third person, this rule applies to the singular of all 
nouns. 

2. In either the past or the past perfect tense, there is but one 

form, and there can be no chance for error in agreement. 



AGREEMENT OF VERB 165 

3. In the future and the future perfect tenses, shall should be 

used "with the first personal pronoun, in both singular 
and plural. (See Section 200 for shall and will as full 
verbs.) 

4. In the present perfect tense, the s-form of the auxiliary 

(has) is used in the third person singular, the same as in the 
simple present. 

AGREEMENT OF VERB. 

198. 1. If the subject of the verb is a collective noun, 
the verb should be singular when the units are considered 
as composing one group ; plural, when the units are 
thought of singly. 

Example. An army is coming. 

An army of tramps are straggling into town. 

2. Two singular nouns connected by and, making a 
compound subject, must be followed by a verb in the 
plural. 

Example. A strong wind and a full sail bring joy to the sailor. 

Sometimes two objects are considered together as one. 
In such a case, the verb agrees with the idea named by 
the words and is in the singular. 

Example. Bread is the staff of life; but bread and butter is a 
gold-headed cane. 

3. Two singular nouns connected by or or nor, making 
a compound subject, are followed by a singular verb. 

Example. A violet or a rose is my favorite wild flower. 

4. When a singular subject is modified by a phrase 
denoting addition, generally introduced by with, to- 
gether with, as well as, the verb is in the singular. 

Example. The bat together with the balls was stolen. 

5. After each, every, either, neither, one, etc., the 
verb should be singular. 

Example. Every one of the men works steadily. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

6. Since conjunctive pronouns are not inflected for 
number, the antecedent tells the number of the pronoun. 
A verb whose subject is a conjunctive pronoun agrees 
with the antecedent in number and person. 

Example. One of the best books that have been published 
recently is " Little Rivers^' 

7. The title of a book requires a singular verb, though 
it is plural in form. 

Example. " The Virginians " is a good story. 

8. When the subject of a verb is two pronouns of dif- 
ferent persons connected by or, usage differs. It sounds 
better to say " Either he or I is going," and " You or I 
are going " ; although there is good authority for saying 
am going in both these sentences. Politeness seems to call 
for the retirement of self, and to give the government of 
the verb to the pronouns of the second or third persons. 

EXERCISE. 

199. Select the correct form of the verb in the follow- 
ing sentences. 

1. A flock of snow-birds (was, were) on the lawn to-day. 

2. A troop of noisy boys (is, are) playing in the street. 

3. Work and play (is, are) good for every one. 

4. Blue or purple (is, are) the color they chose. 

5. Frank as well as Rob (was, were) invited. 

6. Neither of these trees (is, are) large enough. 

7. Each of the girls (stand, stands) well. 

8. " Prue and I " (has, have) many good sayings. 

9. Justice as well as mercy (is, are) divine. 

10. Either you or I (am, are) first in the class. 

11. " Little Men " (is, are) full of interest. 

12. Liberty or death (was, were) the wish of Henry. 

13. Every one of them (was, were) laboring for the same end. 

14. The army of the Frost King (has, have) departed. 

15. Neither unkind truth nor untrue kindness (was, were) needed. 



SOME COMMON VERBS 167 

(The instructor should gather many sentences from the written 
work of the pupils. They form the most interesting and helpful 
exercises.) 

SOME COMMON VERBS. 

SHALL AND WILL. 

200. Some verbs, at times used as auxiliaries, at other 
times are full attributive verbs. Among these are shall, 
will, should, would, have, had, may, and might. With 
these we shall also consider the common verbs can, could, 
ought, and let. 

(a) We shall cull sweet flowers. 

(b) They will gather daisies. 

(c) I wish help. 

(d) I wish to go. 

(e) I will your destruction. 

(f) I will stand here, and no one can hinder me. 

(g) I will go with you. 

(h) "Mary, you must not go." " I shall go." 

(i) You shall do it. 

(j) Jennie shall go to the store. 

(k) Shall I go ? You shall. (Compulsion.) 

(1) Shall you go ? I shall. (Futurity.) 

(m) "Will you go ? I will. (Promise.) 

(n) Shall he go ? He shall. (Compulsion.) 

(o) Will he go ? He will. (Futurity.) 

In the future and future perfect verb-phrases, tell where shall 
should be used ? In what persons should will be used ? Is the use 
in sentences (a) and (b) correct ? Is there anything more than 
future time denoted by the auxiliaries ? 

What is the object of wish in (c) ? of wish in (d) ? What is the 
object of will in (e) ? of will in (f) ? Do you see that in (f) as in 
(e) the willing is the thing that is asserted ? In (f) just as in (e) 
will is a full attributive verb. The object is the infinitive stand. 
(See Section 220, 3.) Is not the tense the same in (f) as in (e) ? 
What tense is will in (e) ? (See Section 179.) When will is a 
full verb, in what tense is it always ? 

We say that will in (b) expresses futurity, simply future time. 
So shall in the first person expresses simple futurity. What would 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

you say is expressed by "will in (e) and (f) ? Is the same attribute 
expressed in (g) ? When will is a full verb, what two attributes 
may be expressed by it ? 

Is simple futurity expressed by shall in (h) ? or is it something 
more ? What attribute is expressed by Shall in (I) ? What attri- 
bute is expressed by shall in (i) ? in (j) ? In (h), (i), and (j), is 
shall a full verb or an auxiliary ? What is the object of shall in 
each of the sentences ? What two attributes may be expressed by 
shall ? When shall is a full verb, in what tense is it ? 

Notice that the same form is used in the question as is used in the 
reply, and that this is true whether the verb is a full verb or an 
auxiliary. 

In (k), does shall in the reply express futurity or compulsion ? 
In the answer of (1), is futurity or determination expressed by 
shall ? The same attribute is expressed by the question. Is shall 
in (1) a full verb or an auxiliary ? In the reply in (m), is will a 
full verb or an auxiliary? The question, "Will you go?" means 
"Are you willing to go?" The answer means, "I am willing to 
go." Is will in the question in (m) a full verb ? What tense is it ? 
Is Shall in both question and answer in (n) a full verb ? What 
tense is it ? What does it mean ? Is will in (o) a full verb ? 
What does it mean ? What tense is used ? 

Shall and will have two uses : as full verbs and as 
auxiliaries. When full verbs they are nearly always 
completed by infinitives as object complements (see Sec- 
tion 227) ; and they are in the present tense. 

As an auxiliary verb, shall is used in declarative sen- 
tences with a first person subiect to denote 
Shall. a , ._ J 

futurity. 

As a full verb, shall may be used — 

1. to express compulsion, when the subject is in the sec- 

ond or third person; 

2. to express determination, or obstinacy, when the sub- 

ject is in the first person. 

As an auxiliary, will is used in declarative sentences 

with the second or third person to denote fu- 
wm. 

turity. 



SOME COMMON VERBS 169 

As a full verb, will is used to express (1) determina- 
tion or (2) promise, when the subject is in the first 
person. 

In asking questions the same verb will or shall should 

be used that is expected in the answer. If the 

i r n i ^i i> n Shall and 

answer is to be a lull verb, use the same lull win in 

. . .-, , , Questions, 

verb m the question ; it the answer is to be an 

auxiliary denoting simple futurity, use the same auxiliary 

in the question. (See sentences (k) to (o).) 

EXERCISE. 

201. Write sentences in which shall is used to express 
a simple future ; obstinacy ; compulsion. Form ques- 
tions in which will is used to express a simple future ; a 
promise ; determination. 

EXERCISE. 

202. Tell whether the verbs are full or auxiliary, and 
give the meaning of the verbs. Also give the tense of 
the verbs and the object complement of each. 

1. I shall be a man. 

2. I will be a man. 

3. It shall be as you say. 

4. It will be as you say. 

5. Shall George Washington hold, the first place in the Hall of 

Fame ? 

6. Will George Washington hold the first place in the Hall of 

Fame V 

7. Shall we study pictures ? 

8. When will the leopard change his spots ? 

9. Shall the United States be free and independent ? 

10. Cuba shall be free. 

11. Shall you go ? I shall. 

12. Will you go ? I will. 

13. When shall we three meet again ? 

14. He shall know what we think of his behavior in this matter. 

15. I shan't go, and I won't. 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

SOME COMMON VERBS— (Continued). 

SHOULD AND WOULD. 

203. (a) If he should come, we should not go. 

(b) If I should come, you -would not go. 

(c) If you should come, they would not go. 

(d) We should do the gracious thing. 

(e) You should go; find the time. 

(f) They should treat him with respect, if they cannot 

honor him. 

(g) He wishes to do right, but at times it seems impossible, 
(h) He would do right, but at times it seems impossible, 
(i) I would not go even if I could. 

(j) He "would wander all day by the side of some clear 

stream, 
(k) The cows would come straggling home at sunset. 

In Section 241, we learned that would and should are often aux- 
iliary verbs, used in conditions. In the conditional clauses of (a), 
(b), and (c), which is used, — should or would ? In the same clauses, 
what are the subjects ? In what person are the subjects ? Then 
does it seem that in subjunctive verb-phrases denoting condition, 
should is always used ? Now note the use of should and would 
in the conclusions of (a), (b), and (c). With which person do you 
find should ? With which do you find would ? Recall the rules for 
shall and will as auxiliaries. Do these same rules apply to should 
and would as auxiliaries ? 

In (d), (e), and (f), should is a full verb. What does it mean ? 
Does it make any difference whether the subject is first, second, or 
third person ? What tense is the verb ? (See Section 179.) What 
time does it denote, — present, or future, or both ? 

Does the meaning of (g) and (h) seem to you the same ? What 
is the object of wishes in (g) ? of would in (h) ? What does 
would mean in (h) and (i) ? Is -would a full verb ? What tense 
is it ? What time does it denote ? 

In (j) and (k), would means was (or were) accustomed to. 
What is the object of the verb ? Is it a full verb in these two sen- 
tences ? What tense is it ? What time does it denote ? 

Should and would are the past tense forms of shall 
and will. They denote present or future time. 



SOME COMMON VERBS 171 

When they are used as auxiliaries, they follow the rules 
given for shall and will as auxiliaries, exeept that would 
is never used as the auxiliary in a verb-phrase in condi- 
tions. 

Should is sometimes a full verb, denoting duty or 
compulsion. 

Would is sometimes a full verb denoting — 

1. desire or intention; or 

2. a customary action. 

EXERCISE. 

204. Fill the blanks with the verbs shall or will, and 
defend your choice. 

1. we go ? 

2. the United States be a defender of the weak. 

3. the United States be the leader among nations ? 

4. What you give ? 

5. What a man give in exchange for his soul ? 

6. Where I meet you ? 

7. An employee do as his employer directs. 

8. He says that he come. 

9. No one entering the contest receive any assistance. 

10. I not. 

EXERCISE. 

205. Insert would and should in the following sen- 
tences, and give the reason for your choice in each 
case : — 

1. What if we fail ? 

2. The birds come at my call. 

3. What they do ? 

4. He announced that he not come. 

5. What you do ? 

6. I have often wondered whether I like to be a bird. 

7. Do you know who do it ? 

8. He never wish that I give him any help. 

9. I think you quit the disgusting tobacco habit. 

10. They knew he go. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE. 

206. Tell what the verbs mean in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. He should go. 

2. He would go. 

3. I knew he should go. 

4. I should not like to leave them. 

5. Should you go ? 

6. You should take care of yourself. 

7. I should be thought guilty. 

8. They would pay their bills, but they cannot. 

9. They should pay their bills, but they will not. 

10. Samuel Johnson would touch every picket in the fence as he 

walked along the street. 

11. Why should the spirit of mortal be proud ? 

12. Whatsoever things ye would that men should do unto you, do 

ye even so unto them. 

SOME COMMON VERBS — (Continued). 

MAY AND HAVE. 

207. (a) May you succeed. 

(b) We work that Ave may succeed. 

(c) He worked that he might win happiness. 

(d) We may play. 

(e) They may take their gauges with them. 

(f) The earth may fall into the sun. 

(g) He said that the earth might fall into the sun. 
(h) Vesuvius may have destroyed other cities. 

(i) Vesuvius might have destroyed Pompeii. 

(j) Nations have learned the art of killing men. 

(k) They have truth on their side. 
(1) Wickedness has to yield, 
(m) They had to hasten. 

What mode are the verb-phrases in (a), (b), and (c) ? (See Sec- 
tion 194.) Are may and might full or auxiliary verbs ? 

In (d), what is asserted, — permission or playing ? Does may in 
(e) assert a permission ? Does may in (d) and (e) seem to you a 



SOME COMMON VERBS 173 

full verb ? What does it denote ? When may or might denotes 
permission, its object, an infinitive, names that which is permitted. 

In (f), does may assert the possibility of the earth falling ? What 
is the object of may in (f) ? What is the object of may in (h) ? 
What is the object of might in (i) ? Show that possibility is as- 
serted by may and might in (g), (h), and (i). Are they full verbs 
or auxiliaries ? 

Is have in (j) an auxiliary or a full verb ? What tense is it the 
sign of ? When had is an auxiliary, what tense is it the sign of ? 
In (k), is have a full verb ? What attribute does it assert ? Is has 
a full verb in (1) ? What attribute does it assert ? What attribute 
is asserted by had in (m) ? What tense is had ? (See Section 
179.) What is its object ? 

May and might are auxiliary verbs in subjunctive verb- 
phrases when they denote a wish or a purpose. 

May and might are full attributive verbs when they 
denote permission or possibility. They are then com- 
pleted by an infinitive without the word to. (See Section 
227.) 

Have and had are often auxiliary verbs, making part 
of verb-phrases. They may^ also be full verbs denot- 
ing to hold in possession ; in which case the object is 
usually a noun. Or they may be full verbs, denoting 
necessity. In this case the object is an infinitive. 

EXERCISE. 

208. Analyze the following sentences, and tell whether 
the verbs may, might, have, and had are full or auxiliary 
verbs : — 

1. Princes and lords may flourish or may fade. 

2. May there be no ill-will between us. 

3. I do entreat that we may sup together. 

4. She was as fair as fair might be. 

5. You might do it if you chose. 

6. The lark has to sing ; he has a joyful heart. 

7. Where has he learned his simple melody ? 

8. The boy whistles that he may not be afraid. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

9. I have seen more days than thou. 
10. Many a word at random spoken 

May soothe, or wound, a heart that 's broken. 

SOME COMMON VERBS — (Continued). 

CAN, COULD, MUST, OUGHT, LET. 

209. (a) Who can be president of the United States ? 

(b) Aaron Burr could not succeed. 

(c) Whoever succeeds must work. 

(d) These things ought ye to have done. 

(e) Let us join in singing the national anthem. 

(f) Let him beware lest he fall. 

(g) Let me go a free man. 

In the early history of our language can meant know. Our pre- 
sent word cunning is from the same word. From ability of the mind 
the word has been extended to include any kind of ability. The 
infinitive following the verb can is its object. What is the past 
tense of can ? In (b), what is the object of could ? 

In (c), what is denoted by must ? In (d), what is the object 
of ought ? What is the difference between the infinitive after 
ought and after the other verbs in this lesson ? What attribute 
does ought express ? Is ought a full verb ? 

Sentences (e), (f), and (g) are imperative. What personal pro- 
noun is always the subject of a verb in the imperative mode ? Then 
if one wished to give a command to himself or to some third per- 
son, he must adopt the method in (e), (f), and (g). Let is in the 
imperative mode ; its subject is you understood. What is to be let, 
or allowed, in (e) ? (See Section 227.) What, then, is the object 
of Let ? 

Can and could are full attributive verbs denoting 
power or ability. They are completed by an infinitive 
without the word to. 

Must is a full attributive verb, denoting duty or 
necessity. It is completed by an infinitive without the 
word to. 

Ought is a full attributive verb denoting duty or ne- 
cessity. It is completed by an infinitive with the word to. 



TENSE OF THESE COMMON VERBS 175 

Let has an idiomatic use in our language. There is no 
imperative in the first and third persons. By the use of 
let and an infinitive with its subject in the objective case, 
we have made a substitute for these omitted imperatives. 
(For the construction of the infinitive, see Section 227.) 

Can is often used when permission is asked or granted. 

This is wrono-. May is the verb for expressing 

. . ° r o cautions, 

permission. 

Had is sometimes incorrectly used before ought. 

There is no more reason for saying " had ought to go " 

than for saying " had can go." " Ought to have gone" 

and " can have gone " are both correct. 

Note. The best exercises for the correction of these common 

errors will be found in the written work of the pupils. The teacher 

should make collections of sentences and have them corrected by the 

class. 

EXERCISE. 

210. Insert the proper verbs in the following blanks, 
and give the reason for your choice : — 

1. He do it if he . 

2. I consult a dictionary ? 

3. us do as we to do. 

4. you to leave now ? 

5. He not when he . 

6. Webster said, come what , he support the Constitu- 

tion. 

7. Where pleasure be found ? 

8. Some persons forget what a little word do. 

9. no man deceive himself ; no man do wrong without 

a stain. 

10. the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots ? 

TENSE OF THESE COMMON VERBS. 

211. Write out the conjugation of will ; shall ; may ; 
can ; must ; and ought. How many forms has each ? 
How many tenses ? 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(a) He shall be put to shame now. 

(b) He shall be put to shame to-morrow. 

(c) He should be present now. 

(d) He should be present to-morrow. 

In (a) and (b), what tense form is used ? What time is denoted 
in (a) ? in (b) ? In (c) and (d), what tense form is used ? May 
the verb should denote present time ? future time ? past time ? Is 
definite time denoted by shall and should ? 

Frame easy sentences using will and would. Question 
yourselves to learn whether these verbs denote definite 
time. 

Do the same with oan, may, must, ought, could, 
would, might. 

Do the tenses of these common verbs denote as definite 
time as the tenses of other verbs ? 

The verbs will, shall, would, should, can, could, must, 
ought, when they are full attributive, have some tense 
forms ; but these forms do not indicate definite notions of 
time. The present form denotes either present or future 
time ; while the past form as seen in should, would, could, 
and might, may denote present or future time. 

In parsing these verbs, name the tense form, and state 
the time which is denoted in the sentence. 

EXERCISE. 

212. In Sections 202 and 206, parse the verbs and verb- 
phrases according to the models. 

Models. 

" Shall be " is an incomplete, copulative verb-phrase. It is in 
the indicative mode, future tense, first person, singular number, 
agreeing- with its subject " I." 

" Will " is an incomplete, transitive verb. It is in the active voice, 
indicative mode, present tense, denoting either present or future 
time, first person, singular number, agreeing with its subject " I." 

Section 206, sentence 1. " Should " is an incomplete, transitive 



PARTICIPLES 177 

verb. It is in the active voice, indicative mode, past tense, denoting 
present or future time, third person, singular number, agreeing with 
its subject " He." 

PARTICIPLES. 
A PARTICIPLE IS A VERBAL ADJECTIVE. (See Section 114.) 

213. Find five sentences containing participles ending 
in ing. 

Find five sentences containing participles ending in d, 
ed, t, n, or en. 

There are but two simple participles : the present, end- 
ing in ing ; and the past, having a number of endings, d, 
ed, t, n, and en. The verbal used in progressive verb- 
phrases is the present participle ; and the verbal used in 
the perfect tenses and in the passive voice is the past par- 
ticiple. 

Simple Participles. 
Present 
Past 
Passive 

From these simple participles, by the use of auxiliaries, 
a number of phrasal participles are formed. 

Phrasal Participles, 
active VOICE. 
Perfect having gone having lifted 

Perfect Progressive having been going having been lifting 

passive voice. 
Present Progressive being drawn being lifted 

Perfect Progressive having been drawn having been lifted 

All the participles can be arranged by voices as follows : 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Present drawing lifting 

Perfect having drawn having lifted 

Perfect Progressive having been drawing having been lifting 



going 


drawing 


lifting 


gone 


drawn 


lifted 




drawn 


lifted 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Past drawn lifted 

Present Progressive being drawn being lifted 

Perfect Progressive having been drawn having been lifted 

EXERCISE. 
214. Frame sentences using the present, active par- 
ticiple of endeavor ; the present, passive participle of 
blow ; the perfect, progressive, active participle of float ; 
the perfect, active participle of assist ; and the perfect, 
progressive, passive participle of interrupt. 

CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

215- (a) Western Massachusetts had no human tenants but the 
roving hunter and the prowling warrior. 

(b) The settlers of this rude solitude stand perplexed and 

wondering over the relics of this lost people. 

(c) Landing at Boston, let the traveller push northward 

and cross the River Saco. 

(d) Here were the Abenakis, found along the Kennebec 

and other rivers. 

(e) When the medicine-man had finished his wild song. 

the band of warriors departed. 

(f) The medicine-man having finished his wild song, the 

band of warriors departed. 

(g) When they are living in communities, the Indians are 

of a very social disposition, 
(h) When living in communities, the Indians are of a very 

social disposition, 
(i) Living in communities, the Indians are of a very social 

disposition, 
(j) Considering the facts, he received scant justice, 
(k) Generally speaking, we receive what we deserve. 

Since participles are verbal adjectives, they have the usual con- 
structions of adjectives. What are the three common constructions 
of adjectives? (See Section 168.) Find examples of these three 
uses in the sentences above. 

Is the idea expressed in the phrase in (f) the same as that 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE PARTICIPLE 179 

expressed by the clause in (e) ? In (e), is there a word to connect the 
clause to the principal proposition ? Is there a word to connect 
the phrase, The medicine-man having finished his wild song, 
to the rest of the sentence ? When a word or group of words is 
connected in meaning but not grammatically joined with the rest of 
the sentence, what is said of it ? (See Section 83.) How, then, is 
the participial phrase used in (f) ? What does having finished 
modify ? 

Do (g), (h), and (i) mean the same ? What parts of (g) have 
been omitted in (h) ? In analysis, what must you do when there is an 
ellipsis ? In (i), is there any need of supplying the omitted words ? 
Why not ? 

Does considering modify any word in (j) ? Does speaking 
modify any word in (k) ? Then in what construction are they ? 

A participle may be used in the following construc- 
tions : — 

1. as an attributive modifier ; (a), (c); 

2. as a predicative modifier; (b); 

3. as an appositive modifier; (d); 

4. with a noun or pronoun making an independent ele- 

ment of a sentence; (f); 

5. absolutely; (j), (k). 

A noun or pronoun modified by a participle is often 
an absolute or independent member of a sentence ; as in 
(f). The participle itself is in the ordinary appositive 
construction. The noun or pronoun is in the nomina- 
tive case ; and for this reason the whole construction is 
often called the nominative absolute. (See Section 135, 
12.) 

A participle without a noun or pronoun is sometimes 
used absolutely. It may, then, be modified as any other 
participle ; as, (j) and (k). 

EXERCISE. 

216. Select and classify the participles in Sections 
114, 115, 120. 



180 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



INFINITIVES. 

AN INFINITIVE IS A VERBAL NOUN. (See Section 116.) 

217. There are two classes of verbal nouns: root in- 
finitives and gerunds. Of the root infinitives there is 
but one simple infinitive ; the others are phrasal. And 
there is but one simple gerund. 







Root Infinitives. 








ACTIVE. 




Present 
Perfect 
Perfect 


Progressive 


(to) go 

(to) have gone 
(to) have been go- 
ing 


(to) lift 

(to) have lifted 
(to) have been lift- 
ing 


Present 
Perfect 




PASSIVE. 

Gerunds. 

ACTIVE. 


(to) be lifted 
(to) have been 
lifted 


Present 
Perfect 
Perfect 


Progressive 


going 

having gone 
having been going 


lifting 

having lifted 
having been lifting 


Present 
Perfect 




PASSIVE. 


being lifted 
having been lifted 



EXERCISE. 



218. Select and classify the infinitives and gerunds in 
Sections 118 and 120. 



EXERCISE. 



219. Frame sensible sentences using the following in- 
finitives and gerunds : the present, active gerund of sing ; 
the perfect, active infinitive of lose ; the perfect, passive 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF INFINITIVES 181 

infinitive of see ; the present, passive gerund of deceive ; 
the perfect, active infinitive of charm. 

CONSTRUCTIONS OF INFINITIVES. 

220. (a) To speak and to speak well are two things. (See Sec- 
tion 4.) 

(b) Spending much is having little. (See Section 14.) 

(c) To have tried earnestly is success. (See Section 4.) 

(d) To hear Webster was to be convinced. (See Sec- 

tions 4 and 14.) 

(e) The Indians learned to deceive. (See Section 30.) 

(f) We taught the Indians to deceive. (See Section 30.) 

(g) Longfellow loved doing little kindnesses. (See Sec- 

tion 30.) 
(h) He may go, for it is time. (See Section 30.) 

Give the three constructions of infinitives and gerunds found in 
these sentences. If you are in doubt about any of them, the section 
numbers will help you. 

The word to is usually what part of speech ? Does it show any 
relation in any of these sentences ? Does it connect ? Does it name 
the action ? Has it really any use in these sentences ? 

The commonest constructions of an infinitive or gerund 
are: — 

1. as subject ; as in (a), (b), (c), (d) ; 

2. as attribute complement ; as in (b), (d) ; 

3. as object complement; as in (e), (f), (g), (h). 

Because the word to is usually found with the infinitive, 

it has come to be called the sign of the infinitive. It is 

used when the infinitive is subiect, attribute 

i i • -it*- "To" the 

complement, or obiect complement. 13ut it sign of the 
, r ' . . , J , . fi . t , . Infinitive, 

torms no part ot the infinitive, and in some 

constructions it is dropped. (For its omission, see Sec- 
tion 227.) 

EXERCISE. 

221. Make sensible sentences in which an infinitive is 
subject ; a gerund is subject ; an infinitive is an attribute 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

complement ; a gerund is an attribute complement ; an 
infinitive is an object complement ; a gerund is an object 
complement. 

INFINITIVE AND GERUND IN PREPOSITIONAL 
PHRASES. 

222. (a) The priests were busy with preaching and singing 
vespers. 

(b) Lincoln found many problems to solve. 

(c) He studied to understand the difficulties. 

(d) He was able to act wisely. 

(e) What can they do but retreat ? 

What is the prepositional phrase in (a) ? What are the principal 
words ? How do you know that they are gerunds ? 

In (b), what does the phrase to solve modify ? What kind of 
modifier is it ? Is the phrase to solve equivalent to the phrase for 
solving? What is solving in the latter phrase? Solve in the 
former has the same construction. It is a simple infinitive used as 
the principal word in a prepositional phrase. 

In (c), what does the prepositional phrase to understand modify ? 
What kind of modifier is it ? What phrase can you substitute for 
this phrase, as you did in (b) ? What, then, is the construction of 
understand ? This phrase is an adverbial modifier expressing pur- 
pose of the verb it modifies, studied. This is the common way of 
expressing purpose to-day. He ran to catch the train; "We 
worked to get it ready; He whistled to keep his courage 
up, — all these show examples of an infinitive used as the principal 
word of a prepositional phrase expressing purpose. 

In (d), what does the phrase to act modify? What part of 
speech is able ? What kind of phrase is to act, then ? What is 
the principal word of this phrase ? 

But with the meaning of except is a preposition. What, then, 
is but retreat ? What is retreat ? 

From these sentences we learn that an infinitive or a 
gerund may be the principal word in a prepositional 
phrase. Such a prepositional phrase may modify a noun, 
an adjective, or a verb. 

When an infinitive is the principal word of a preposi- 



INFINITIVE AND GERUND 183 

tional phrase, the word to has its usual use as a preposi- 
tion. It is not merely the sign of an infinitive. 

EXERCISE. 

223. The following sentences contain participles, 
gerunds, and infinitives. Select them and tell their use 
in the sentences. 

1. The miracle plays were written to teach the people the stories 

of the Bible. 

2. The priests acted out the story of the building of the 

ark. 

3. They drove about the city in great two-story wagons, stopping 

at certain places to act the play. 

4. The actors did everything to make the plays real to the 

people. 

5. In these plays Satan wore a hideous suit of leather covered 

with black hair and feathers. 

6. I was glad to hear of his doing so well. 

7. The silver, snarling trumpets 'gan to chide. 

8. Some chains we have no skill to break. 

9. George III, by trying to curb the growing liberties of the 

American colonies, forfeited forever the brightest jewel in 
the British crown. 

10. The first step to greatness is to be honest. 

11. A great man, living to high ends, is the divinest thing on 

earth. 

12. Winter lingering chills the lap of May. 

13. The bell strikes one. We take no note of time 
But from its loss. To give it, then, a tongue 
Is wise in man. 

14. Old friends are best. King James used to call for his old 

shoes. They were easiest to his feet. 

15. When she had passed, it seemed like the ceasing of exquisite 

music. 

16. The leaves of memory seemed to make 
A mournful rustling in the dark. 

17. Within the rose I found a trembling tear, 
Close curtained in a gloom of crimson night 
By tender petals from the outer light. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE. 

224. Frame two sentences in which a prepositional 
phrase with an infinitive as principal word modifies a 
noun ; two in which it modifies a verb ; two in which it 
modifies an adjective. 

EXERCISE. 

225. Analyze the following' sentences according to the 
model : — 

Model. " He studied to understand the difficulties " is a simple 
declarative sentence. The bare unmodified subject is " He " ; the 
complete predicate is " studied to understand the difficulties." The 
bare predicate is " studied," a copula-attribute. The sentence is, 
therefore, of the second type. " Studied " is modified by the pre- 
positional phrase " to understand the difficulties," consisting of the 
preposition " to " and its object, the infinitive " understand." " Un- 
derstand " is completed by the object complement " difficulties." 
" Difficulties " is modified by "the." 

1. I am never in a position to judge another. 

2. The only way to make people good is to be good. 

3. The way to get out of self-love is to love God. 

4. That night the moon seemed to balance her silver bow upon 

the mountain's brow. 

5. Boys have a great way of helping each other to do nothing. 

6. To " sugar-off " is to boil the syrup until it is thick enough to 

crystallize into sugar. 

7. The lesson thoroughly learned is easy to recite. 

8. We '11 teach him to know turtles from jays. 

9. Columbines have found a way to overcome the hard and gray 

old rocks. 
10. Seas roll to waft me, suns to light me rise; 
My footstool earth, my canopy the skies. 

AN INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT. 

226. (a) The bird sings. 

(b) The bird is singing. 

(c) I believe that the bird sings, 



AN INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT 185 

(d) I have heard that the bird is singing. 

(e) I wish that the bird would sing. 

(f) I wish the bird to sing. 

(g) I expect the bird to be singing. 
(h) I hear the bird sing. 

(i) I hear the bird singing. 

(j) I thought the man to be honest. 

(k) I considered him honest. 

(1) That a man should diefor his country is noble. 

(m) That a man should live for his country is nobler, 

(n) For a man to die for his country is noble. 

(o) For a man to live for his country is nobler. 

(p) It is noble for a man to die for his country. 

(q) It is a beautiful morning for a walk. 

(r) It is a beautiful morning for you to "walk. 

(s) It is a beautiful morning for you to be walking. 

What is the subject of (a) ? of (b) ? the predicate of each ? 
What clause is the object complement in (c) ? in (d) ? What 
kind of a verb is wish in (e) ? What is its object ? Of this noun- 
clause what is the subject ? the predicate ? What is the object of 
wish in (f) ? Does the relation between bird and to sing seem the 
same as that between the subject and predicate of the clause in (e) ? 
Would it seem right to call bird the subject of the infinitive to sing 
in (f) ? In (g), is bird the subject of the infinitive to be sing- 
ing ? In (h), what is the object complement of hear ? How do 
you know that sing is not a verb in the third person, singular num- 
ber ? What word which you have usually seen before an infinitive 
is omitted before sing in (h) ? What words are omitted from the 
infinitive in (i) ? What is the object of thought in (j) ? What is 
the subject of the infinitive to be ? What is its attribute comple- 
ment ? In (k), what words have been omitted ? Should they be 
supplied when you analyze the sentence ? 

What is the subject of (1) ? of (m) ? What words in the phrase 
in (n) correspond with the subject and predicate of the noun clause 
of (1) ? What is the use of That in (1) and (m) ? For performs 
the same office in (n) and (o). What might you call For when used 
in this way ? What is the real subject of (p) ? What is the anti- 
cipatory subject? What use has for in this sentence ? What part 
of speech is for in (q) ? Is it the same in (r) ? in (s) ? What is 
the object of the preposition in (r) ? in (s) ? 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Insert he or him in place of bird in (d) and (e). What case 
of the pronoun did you use ? Now insert one of the same words in 
place of bird in (f), (g), (h), and (i). What case did you use? 
Use him or he in place of man in (n) and (o). What case do you 
find used as subject of an infinitive ? 

FIVE CONSTRUCTIONS OF INFINITIVES. 

227. Infinitives and gerunds are found in five con- 
structions. They are — 

1. as subject; , 

2. as attribute complement; 

3. as object complement; 

4. as principal word in a prepositional phrase. 

This prepositional phrase may be — 

(a) an adjective phrase modifying a noun or pronoun; 

as, bread to eat. 

(b) an adverbial phrase denoting purpose, most fre- 

quently found after a verb expressing motion ; 
as, He came to see. 

(c) an adverbial phrase modifying an adjective. 

The adjectives most commonly modified by this pre- 
positional phrase are ready, able, fit, apt, desir- 
ous, certain, sure, content, happy, easy, hard, 
beautiful, necessary ; as, ready to work ; beautiful 
to hear. 

5. as part of a phrase with the subject of the assumed 

action in the objective case. 

The infinitive with its subject in the objective case 

may be — 
Construe- J 

infinitive ■*■■ the sub Ject of a verb ; 

wi J£ . In this case it is introduced by the word for, 

Subject. . J ' 

which has no connective value. 

2. an object complement; 

In this case the word to is often omitted. 

3. the principal word of a prepositional phrase. 

" For " may have its true value as a preposition before an infini- 
tive with its subject in the objective case. 



TENSES OF VERBALS 187 

(a) I dare do all that may become a man. The omission 

(b) He whose life is clean need have no fear. of the Sign 
) < T , , of the 

(c) Let my people go. Infinitive. 

(d) I feel the frightened bird's heart flutter. 

(e) Yet hear me, countrymen; yet hear me speak. 

There are a number of infinitives in these sentences without the 
word to. Find them. 

Infinitives are used without the word to after — 

1. the verbs dare, bid, need, make, let, can, may, must, 

shall, will; 

2. verbs denoting an action of the senses or of the mind; 

as, hear and see. 
This infinitive generally has a subject in the objective case; as, I 
hear the bell ring; I hear the bell ringing ; I hear him speak. 



TENSES OF VERBALS. 

228. (a) Washington, crossing the Delaware, captured the Hes- 
sians at Trenton. 

(b) Washington, crossing the Delaware, captures the Hes- 

sians. 

(c) Washington, crossing the Delaware, will capture the 

Hessians. 

(d) Washington, having crossed the Delaware, captured 

the Hessians. 

(e) Washington, having crossed the Delaware, captures 

the Hessians. 

(f) Washington, having crossed the Delaware, will cap- 

ture the Hessians. 

(g) Seas roll to waft me. 

(h) Seas have rolled to waft me. 
(i) Seas will roll to waft me. 

In (a), what time is denoted by the verb captured ? Does cross- 
ing in (a) denote the present time ? or do you think it means the 
same time as the verb captured ? What time is denoted by cap- 
tures in (b) ? Does the crossing occur at the time of the verb 
captures ? In (c), is crossing to be done in the past, present, 
or future ? Where does it get its time notion ? In these three sen- 
tences crossing is a present participle. Does it denote the present 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

time in all three ? In which one does it denote present time ? It 
denotes past time in which one ? and future time in which one ? The 
time denoted by these participles, then, is derived from the time 
of the principal verb. You will find this is always true of parti- 
ciples. 

Ask yourselves a similar series of questions about having crossed 
and to waft. Do verbals denote definite time ? or do they derive 
their time-notion from the verb of the sentence ? 

A verbal does not denote absolute time as a verb does ; 
its time is derived from the time of the principal verb. 
Its tense form does not indicate time, but only that the 
action is continuing or completed at the time indicated by 
the principal verb. 

To parse a verbal, give — 

1. its classification, as present, past, or perfect; active or pas- 

sive; if it is progressive, state that fact; 

2. the classification of the verb from which it is derived, as 

complete or incomplete; copulative or attributive; transitive 
or intransitive; 

3. the construction of the verbal. 

EXERCISE. 

229. Analyze the following sentences and parse the 
verbals. 

Model. To have tried earnestly is success. 
'T is an ill cure 
For life's worst ills to have no time to feel them. 
Aroused by this success, the country rose to check the 

invader. 
Baron Steuben was of great service in organizing and 

drilling the American troops. 
Sometimes we think that we can reach the stars. 

" To have tried " is a perfect, active infinitive, from the complete, 
attributive verb try. It is here the subject of the sentence. 

" To have " is a present, active infinitive, from the incomplete, 
transitive verb have. It is the real subject of the sentence. 

" Feel " is a present, active infinitive, from the incomplete, transi- 
tive verb feel. It is the principal word of a prepositional phrase. 



TENSES OF VERBALS 189 

" Aroused " is a past, passive participle, from the complete, at- 
tributive verb arouse. It modifies " country." 

" Organizing " is a present, active gerund, from the incomplete, 
transitive verb organize. It is the object of the preposition " in." 

" Reach " is a present, active infinitive, from the incomplete, trans- 
itive verb reach. It is the object complement of " can." 

1. Teach me to feel another's woe. 

2. It is better to suffer wrong than to do it, and happier to be 

sometimes cheated than not to trust. 

3. It needs brains to be a real fool. 

4. So teach us to number our days that we may apply our hearts 

unto wisdom. 

5. Genius can never despise labor. 

6. All night long 

He had lain wakeful, tossing on his bed. 

7. Rustum had risen, 
And stood erect, trembling with rage. 

8. So did King Afrasiab bid me seek 
Thy counsel, and to heed thee. 

9. I am no girl, to be made afraid by threats. 

10. She will hear the winds howling, 
Will hear the waves roar. 

11. I heard of his attempting to lift himself by his boot-straps. 

12. How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is 
To have a thankless child ! 

13. I am Sir Oracle, 

And when I ope my lips, let no dog bark. 

14. 'T is greatly wise to talk with our past hours, 
And ask them what report they bore to heaven. 

15. Being in a ship is like being in a jail, with the chance of being 

drowned. 

16. So have I heard on Afric's burning shore 
A hungry lion give a grievous roar; 

The grievous roar echoed along the shore. 
So have I heard on Afric's burning shore 
Another lion give a grievous roar; 
And the first lion thought the last a bore. 

17. It is hard for an empty bag to stand upright. 

18. Why doth one man's yawning make another yawn ? 

19. How easy it is for one benevolent being to diffuse pleasure 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

around him; and how truly is a kind heart a fountain of 
gladness, making everything in its vicinity to freshen into 
smiles ! Irving. 

20. It is a noble and great thing to cover the blemishes and excuse 
the failings of a friend; to draw a curtain before his stains, 
and to display his perfections; to bury his weaknesses in 
silence, but to proclaim his virtues from the housetop. 

South. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. 

Old and New Conjugations. 

230. The present infinitive, the past tense, and the 
past participle are called the principal parts of a verb. 
This is because with these three forms all the other forms 
of a verb may be made. 

Write out in three columns the principal parts of the 
following verbs : rain, separate, paint, accustom, col- 
lect, carry, compose, build. 

Point out the ways in which the past indicative differs from the 
present infinitive. How does the past participle differ from the 
present infinitive ? What letters are added to the present infinitive 
to form the past indicative and the past participle ? 

Write in columns the principal parts of the following 
verbs : know, ring, freeze, bite, spin, find, drink, write, 
beat. 

In how many of these verbs is the vowel changed to form the past 
indicative ? In how many is the vowel of the participle different 
from the vowel of the present infinitive ? In how many is the vowel 
different in the past indicative and the past participle ? What ones 
have n or en in the past participle ? How many have no ending in 
the past participle ? 

Most verbs form their past tense and past participle 
by adding ed, d, or t to the present infinitive form, often 
making another syllable. 

These verbs include the newer ones of our language, 
and are said to belong to the new conjugation. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS 191 

There is a small number of verbs that follow the 
changes of the Old English in forming their principal 
parts. They are usually words of one syllable, and are 
among the earliest verbs in the language. These belong 
to the old conjugation. 

The old conjugation is known by the following charac- 
teristics : — 

1. A verb of the old conjugation generally changes its 

vowel in changing from the present infinitive to the 
past indicative and past participle. 

2. It does not add a syllable in changing from the infini- 

tive to the past indicative. 

3. The past participle of these verbs ends, or did end, in n 

or en. 

Some verbs of this class have now dropped this ending, and have 
no ending in the past participles; as, sit, sat, sat. 

A few verbs have more than one form for some of their parts; as, 
build, builded or built, builded or built. 

Verbs of the old conjugation are often called strong verbs; and 
those of the new conjugation are called weak verbs. 

Below is given a list of the most common verbs of the 
old conjugation and some irregular verbs of the new con- 
jugation. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



231. 



Present Inf. 


Past Ind. 


Past Part. 


abide 


abode 


abode 


be 


was 


been 


bear 


bore 


borne 


beat 


beat 


beaten 


begin 


began 


begun 


bid 


bade 


bade 


bite 


bit 


bitten 


blow- 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broken 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built 


built 



192 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



esent Inf. 


Past Ind. 


Past Part. 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy- 


bought 


bought 


catch 


caught 


caught 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cling 


clung 


clung 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


drive 


drove 


driven 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


■went 


gone 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hide 


hid 


hidden 


know 


knew 


known 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


leave 


left 


left 


lie 


lay 


lain 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


run 


ran 


run 


see 


saw- 


seen 


seek 


sought 


sought 


sell 


sold 


sold 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


sing 


sang 


sung 


sink 


sank 


sunk 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE 



193 



lsent Inf. 


Past Ind. 


Past Part. 


set 


set 


set 


sit 


sat 


sat 


slay- 


slew- 


slain 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


swear 


swore 


sworn 


swim 


swam 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear 


tore 


torn 


throw- 


threw 


thrown 


wake 


waked, woke 


waked, woke 


wear 


wore 


■worn 


wind 


■wound 


wound 


write 


wrote 


■written 



232. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. 

Principal Parts. Present, be ; past, was ; perfect participle, 
been. 

Indicative Mode. 

present tense. 



1. 


I am 


We are 


2. 


Thou art 


You are 


3. 


He is 


They are 

PAST TENSE. 


1. 


I was 


We were 


2. 


Thou wast 


You were 


3. 


He was 


They -were 

FUTURE TENSE. 


1. 


I shall be 


We shall be 


2. 


Thou wilt be 


You -will be 


3. 


He will be 


They will be 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been We have been 

2. Thou hast been You have been 

3. He has been They have been 



194 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had been We had been 

2. Thou hadst been You had been 

3. He had been They had been 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall have been "We shall have been 

2. Thou -wilt have been You will have been 

3. He will have been They will have been 

Subjunctive Mode. 







PRESENT TENSE. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


(If) I be 
(If) thou be 
(If) he be 


(If) we be 
(If) you be 
(If) they be 


1. 

2. 

3. 


(If) I were 
(If) thou wert 
(If) he were 


PAST TENSE. 


1. 


present perfect tense. 


2. 

3. 


(If) he have been 


1. 

2. 

3. 




Imperative Mode. 


Be (thou) 


Be (ye) 






Participles. 




Present 

Past 

Perfect 


Being 
Been 
Having been 

Infinitives. 




Present 
Perfect 


(to) be 

(to) have been 

Gerunds. 




Present 
Perfect 


Being 
Having been 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HIDE 195 

EXERCISE. 

233. Give the verb be in the third person, singular, 
through all the modes and tenses. Do the same in the 
first person, plural. 

The regular arrangement of the forms of a verb in one 
person and number through the different modes and tenses 
is called a synopsis. 

243. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HIDE. 

Principal Parts. Present, hide; past, hid; perfect participle, 
hidden. 

Active Voice. Indicative Mode. 

present tense. 

1. I hide We hide 

2. (Thou hidest) You hide 

3. He hides They hide 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I hid We hid 

2. (Thou hiddest) You hid 

3. He hid They hid 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall hide We shall hide 

2. (Thou wilt hide) You will hide 

3. He will hide They will hide 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have hidden We have hidden 

2. (Thou hast hidden) You have hidden 

3. He has hidden They have hidden 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had hidden We had hidden 

2. (Thou hadst hidden) You had hidden 

3. He had hidden They had hidden 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall have hidden We shall have hidden 

2. (Thou wilt have hidden) You will have hidden 

3. He will have hidden They will have hidden 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Subjunctive Mode, 
present tense. 

1. 

2. 

3. (If) he hide (The only form in the present.) 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
1. 

2. 

3. (If) he have hidden 

(For the subjunctive verb-phrases with may and might, see Sec- 
tion 194. For the subjunctive verb-phrases with should and would, 
see Section 192. For the use of the past and past perfect tenses in 
conditions contrary to fact, see Section 192, 3 and 4.) 

Imperative Mode. 
1. 

2. Hide (thou) Hide (you or ye) 

3. 

Participles. 

Present hiding 

Past hidden 

Perfect having hidden 

Perfect Progressive having been hiding 

Infinitives. 

Present (to) hide 

Perfect (to) have hidden 

Perfect Progressive (to) have been hiding 

Gerunds. 

Present hiding 

Perfect having hidden 

Perfect Progressive having been hiding 

Passive Voice. Indicative Mode, 
present tense. 

1. I am hidden We are hidden 

2. (Thou art hidden) You are hidden 

3. He is hidden They are hidden 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HIDE 197 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was hidden We were hidden 

2. (Thou wert hidden) You were hidden 

3. He was hidden They were hidden 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall be hidden We shall be hidden 

2. (Thou wilt be hidden) You will be hidden 

3. He will be hidden They will be hidden 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been hidden We have been hidden 

2. (Thou hast been hidden) You have been hidden 

3. He has been hidden They have been hidden 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had been hidden We had been hidden 

2. (Thou hadst been hidden) You had been hidden 

3. He had been hidden They had been hidden 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall have been hidden We shall have been hidden 

2. (Thou wilt have been hid- You will have been hidden 

den) 

3. He will have been hidden They will have been hidden 

Subjunctive Mode, 
present tense. 

1. (If) I be hidden (If) we be hidden 

2. ((If) thou be hidden) (If) you be hidden 

3. (If) he be hidden (If) they be hidden 

PAST TENSE. 

1. (If) I were hidden 

2. ((If) thou wert hidden) 

3. (If) he were hidden 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
1. 

2. 

3. (If) he have been hidden 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(For the subjunctive verb-phrases with may and might, see Sec- 
tion 194. For the subjunctive verb-phrases with should and would, 
see Section 192. For the use of the past and past perfect tenses in 
conditions contrary to fact, see Section 192, 3 and 4.) 

Imperative Mode. 
1. 

2. Be (thou) hidden Be (ye) hidden 

3. 

Participles. 
Present hidden 

Present Progressive being hidden 

Perfect having been hidden 





Infinitives. 


Present 


(to) be hidden 


Perfect 


(to) have been hiddi 




(jERUNDS. 


Present 


having hidden 


Perfect 


having been hidden 



EXEKCISE. 

235. Write the progressive conjugation of the verb 
hide in such tenses as it is found used. 

Write a synopsis of the verb hide in the third person, 
singular, indicative mode, both active and passive voices. 

PARSING VERBS OR VERB-PHRASES. 

236. To parse a verb or a verb-phrase, give — 

1. its classification — 

(a) complete or incomplete, 

(b) copulative or attributive, 

(c) transitive or intransitive, 

(d) progressive or emphatic (if it be one of these phrases), 

(e) of the old or new conjugation; 

2. its principal parts ; 

3. its voice ; 

4. its mode ; 



PARSING VERBS OR VERB-PHRASES 199 

5. its tense (note under tense the time that is indicated by such 

verbs as can, should, might, etc.); 

6. its person and number ; 

7. its agreement, naming its subject. 

Model. " God gives every bird its food, but he does not throw it 
into the nest." 

"Gives " is an incomplete, transitive verb of the old conjugation. 

Its principal parts are give, gave, given. It is in the active voice, 
indicative mode, present tense, third person, singular number, agree- 
ing with its subject, " God." 

" Does throw " is an incomplete, transitive, emphatic verb-phrase 
of the old conjugation. Its principal parts are throw, threw, thrown. 
It is in the active voice, iudicative mode, present tense, third person, 
singular number, agreeing with its subject, " he." 

" Should old acquaintance be forgot ? " 

" Should " is an incomplete, transitive verb of the old conjugation. 
Its principal parts are shall, should ; it has no participle. It is in 
the active voice, indicative mode, past tense, denoting present or fu- 
ture time, third person, singular number, agreeing with its subject, 
" acquaintance." 

"Be forgot" is a present, passive infinitive, from the incomplete, 
transitive verb forget. It is used as the object complement of the 
verb "Should." 

" If all the year were playing holidays, 
To sport would be as tedious as to work." 

" Were " is a copulative, intransitive verb of the old conjugation. 
Its principal parts are be or am, was, been. It is in the subjunctive 
mode, past tense, denoting indefinite time in a condition contrary to 
fact, third person, singular number, agreeing with its subject, "year." 

" Would be " is a copulative, intransitive verb-phrase of the old 
conjugation. Its principal parts are be or am, was, been. It is in 
the subjunctive mode, past tense, denoting indefinite time in a con- 
clusion contrary to fact, third person, singular number, agreeing with 
its subject, " to sport." 

EXERCISE. 

237. Turn back to Sections 102 and 176, and parse 
the verbs in those sentences. 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE. 

238. Analyze the sentences in the following para- 
graphs ; parse all the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, 
and verbals. 

The coming and going of the birds is more or less a mystery and 
a surprise. We go out in the morning, and no thrush or vireo is to 
be heard; we go out again, and every tree and grove is musical; yet 
again, and all is silent. Who saw them come ? Who saw them de- 
part ? 

This pert little winter wren, for instance, darting in and out the 
fence, diving under the rubbish here and coming up yards away, how 
does he manage with those little circular wings to compass degrees 
and zones, and arrive always on the nick of time ? Last August I 
saw him in the remotest wilds of the Adirondack^, impatient and in- 
quisitive as usual; a few weeks later, on the Potomac, I was greeted 
by the same hardy little busybody. Does he travel by easy stages 
from bush to bush and from wood to wood ? or has that compact 
little body force and courage to brave the night and the upper air, 
and so achieve leagues at one pull ? 

Burroughs, from Wake-Robin. 

If you would know the flavor of huckleberries, ask the cow-boy 
or the partridge. It is a vulgar error to suppose that you have 
tasted huckleberries who never plucked them. A huckleberry never 
reaches Boston; they have not been known there since they grew 
on her three hills. The ambrosial and essential part of the fruit 
is lost with the bloom which is rubbed off in the market cart, and 
they become mere provender. As long as Eternal Justice reigns, 
not one innocent huckleberry can be transported thither from the 
country's hills. Thoreau, from Walden. 

The other day, a ragged, barefoot boy ran down the street after 
a marble, with so jolly an air that he set every one he passed into a 
good humor; one of these persons, who had been delivered from 
more than usually black thoughts, stopped the little fellow and gave 
him some money with this remark: " You see what sometimes comes 
of looking pleased." If he had looked pleased before, he had now 
to look both pleased and mystified. For my part, I justify this en- 
couragement of smiling rather than tearful children; I do not wish 
to pay for tears anywhere but upon the stage; but I am prepared to 



ADVERBS 201 

deal largely in the opposite commodity. A happy man or woman is 
a better thing to find than a five-pound note. 

Stevenson, from An Apology for Idlers. 

ADVERBS. 

239. AN ADVERB IS A WORD THAT MODIFIES A VERB OR A 
MODIFIER. (See Section 54.) 

(a) Time has laid his hand gently upon my heart. 

(b) Most persons talk too much. 

(c) Boxing is rough play, but not too rough for a hearty young 

fellow. 

(d) Just above the horizon hung a golden fleece. 

(e) Absence of occupation is not rest. 

(f) Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of 

my life. 

(g) Possibly the little bird is hurt. 

(h) Things always seem fairer when we look back at them. 

(i) Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

(j) The flowers were as abundant as the bees wished. 

(k) Eyes are not so common as some people think, or poets 

would be more plentiful. 
(1) The more I study the less I seem to know, 
(m) Where are you going, little maid ? 
(n) I asked where she was going, 
(o) "Why did Ernest love the Great Stone Face ? 
(p) They knew not why he loved it. 

Find in (a), (b), (c), and (d) an example of an adverb modifying 
a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a phrase. 

In (e), what word does not modify ? By modifying the assert- 
ing word, it changes the meaning of the whole sentence. So Surely 
in (f), or Possibly in (g), changes the manner of the whole asser- 
tion ; yet these adverbs modify only the verbs in each sentence. 

Find two conjunctive adverbs in the sentences. (See Section 97.) 
In (j), what does the first as modify ? What two uses has the 
second as ? (See Section 103.) What does so modify in (k)? What 
does as in (k) modify and connect ? 

In (1), what pair of words connect the clause to the principal 
proposition ? What word does each of these words modify ? What, 
then, are their two uses ? 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

In (m), what word asks the question ? What relation has it to 
the rest of the sentence ? What, then, would be a good classifica- 
tion for it ? What kind of a question is (n) ? (See Section 111.) 
(o) ? (p) ? What is where ? why ? 

Adverbs generally modify words ; but rarely one is 
found modifying a prepositional phrase, and it seems 
almost to modify the preposition itself. (See (d).) 

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

240. The number of adverbs is very large, and they 
are classified as — 

1. adverbs of time; as, now, never, then; 

2. adverbs of place; as, here, everywhere, yonder; 

3. adverbs of manner; as, well, harshly, wonderfully; 

4. adverbs of degree; as, very, too, exceedingly; 

5. adverbs of cause or consequence; as, hence, therefore, so. 

A few adverbs modify the copula idea of a verb and 
through this the whole sentence. Their modification 
Modal changes the mode, or manner, of the assertion. 

Adverbs. They are called modal adverbs. The com- 
monest modal adverbs are certainly, surely, not, pos- 
sibly, perhaps. 

Yes and no correspond to modal adverbs. But these 
words take the place of whole sentences, and therefore 
are called sentence-adverbs. 

Conjunctive Some adverbs serve as connectives. They are 
Adverbs. ca ll ec [ conjunctive adverbs. 

As — as, so — as, the — the are found used in pairs, 
and so are called correlative conjunctive adverbs. So 
as a correlative should be used only after a negative. 

Adverbs may be used as the interrogative words of a 

inter- sentence. This may occur in either direct or 

rotative . ... . „,- ,, , . 

Adverbs. indirect questions. J. hey are called interroga- 
tive adverbs. 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 203 

Adverbs are usually single words ; but sometimes we 
meet idiomatic phrases which have an adverbial p hr asai 
use, and are hard to separate. Such groups of Adverbs - 
words are called phrasal adverbs. Some examples are : 
at all, in vain, for sure, of late. 

There has not the use of an adverb, when it introduces 
a sentence. It is called an introductory word. There. 
(See Sections 79 and 105.) 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

241. Most adverbs of manner and a few others may be 
compared. The rules for their comparison are the same as 
the rules for the comparison of adjectives. (See Section 
165.) 

A few adverbs are irregular in comparison. The 
most common are : ill, badly, much, little, far, near, 
late. (See Section 165.) 

An adverb should stand as near to the word it modifies 
as it can be placed. Then there will be no mistake about 
what the adverb modifies. Modal adverbs only Position of 
may stand in almost any position in a sentence. Adverbs - 
This proves that they modify the whole sentence, and not 
any single word. 

Many persons force adjectives to do duty as adverbs. 
The adjectives most often abused are : good, bad, real, 
awful, some, most. These words are used in- ^^g^ 
stead of the proper words : well, badly, really, je S c e ti ° v f e A J or 
very, somewhat, and almost. Adverbs. 

It is a common fault to use adverbs where adjectives 
are required. This most often occurs after such verbs as 
look, appear, seem, feel, taste, smell. If the ^correct 
word following any of these verbs names an at- verbs for 
tribute of the subject, an adjective should be Ad J ectives - 
used. If the word modifies the verb, an adverb should be 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

used. " The pencil looked sharp " and " The man looked 
at me sharply " are both correct. 

To parse an adverb give — Parcing an 

1. its classification; 

2. its comparison, if it has any; 

3. its construction. 

EXERCISE. 

242. Insert the correct words in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. Wagner did not live (so, as) long ago as Mozart. 

2. We are (most, almost) there. 

3. It was (very, awful) painful. 

4. The milk smells (sweetly, sweet). 

5. How are you ? I am (nicely, well). 
G. She read very (good, well). 

7. The hat looks (prettily, pretty). 

8. A few have come only. 

9. Every one should do (so, as) well as he can. 

10. Madame Blauvelt sings (most, almost) (as, so) (good, well) as 
Nordica. 

(Note. These sentences are barely enough to illustrate the errors 
that young persons make in the use of adverbs. Exercises composed 
of actual mistakes made by pupils are the best for use.) 

EXERCISE. 

243. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the 
adverbs. 

Model. " Much," in (b) of Section 239, is an adverb of degree. 
It is compared, much, more, most. It is a modifier of " talk." 

" Just," in (d) of Section 239, is an adverb of degree, modifying 
the phrase " above the horizon." 

" Surely," in (f) of Section 239, is a modal adverb, modifying 
the verb " shall follow," and through this verb modifying the whole 
sentence. 

1. Scarcely was he at sea when a storm scattered his vessels. 

2. Here in the solitude he saw great meadows, where the moose 

with their young were grazing. 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 205 

3. Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn in no 

other. 

4. He is no wise man that will quit a certainty for an uncer- 

tainty. 

5. Things always seem fairer when we look back at them. 

6. The ancients were certainly more social than we, though that 

was natural enough, when a good part of the world was still 
covered with forest. They huddled together in cities as 
well for safety as to keep their minds warm. 

7. Knowledge and timber should n't be much used till they are 

seasoned. 

8. The world has a million roosts for a man, but only one nest. 

9. One cannot burn his house down to warm the hands even of 

the fatherless and the widow. 

10. The lawn beneath the trees is already a rich emerald, and 

large gold stars begin to spangle it. 

11. The sun shone with mellow breath across the rippling lake. 

12. Before the " Wonder-Book " was in the printer's hands, Haw- 

thorne's children could repeat the greater part of it by 
heart, from hearing it read so often. 

13. California has been a land of promise in its time, like Pales- 

tine; but if the woods continue so swiftly to perish, it may 
become, like Palestine, a land of desolation. 

14. Nothing is more pleasant to the eye than green grass kept 

finely shorn. 

15. Still the daylight kept flooding insensibly out of the east, 

which was soon to grow incandescent and cast up that red- 
hot cannon-ball, the rising sun. 

16. He did not care a stalk of parsley if I wandered all night 

upon the hills. (See Section 240.) 

17. One charm of Rome is that nobody has anything in particular 

to do, or, if he has, can always stop doing it on the slightest 
pretext. 

18. It is very common for people to say that they are disap- 

pointed in the first sight of St. Peter's; and one hears much 
the same about Niagara. I cannot help thinking that the 
fault is in themselves; and that if the church and the cat- 
aract were in the habit of giving away their thoughts, they 
might perhaps say of their visitors, " Well, if you are those 
Men of whom we have heard so much, we are a little dis- 
appointed, to tell the truth." Lowell. 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

19. I care not, Fortune, what you me deny: 

You cannot rob me of free Nature's grace, 
You cannot shut the windows of the sky 

Through which Aurora shows her brightening face. 

Thomson. 
PREPOSITIONS. 

244. A PREPOSITION IS A WORD OR A GROUP OF WORDS THAT 
CONNECTS THE PRINCIPAL WORD OF A PHRASE TO THE WORD 
THE PHRASE MODIFIES, AND SHOWS THE RELATION BETWEEN 
THE TWO IDEAS CONNECTED. (See Section 62.) 

(a) Hail to the chief who in triumph advances ! 

(b) Howe'er it be, it seems to me, 
'T is only noble to be good. 

(c) To all, to each, a fair good-night, 

And pleasing dreams, and slumbers light. 

(d) When I heard the song of the hermit thrush, 

I thought I had never heard singing until then. 

(e) The starry banner floats on high. 

(f) None knew her but to love her. 

(g) God never imposes a duty without giving the time to do it. 
(h) No generous man strives to be seen in his giving. 

(i) We spend our days in deliberating, and we end them without 

coming to any resolution, 
(j) The poor poet 

Worships without reward, nor hopes to find 
A heaven save in his worship, 
(k) We should never be grieved by what slanderers say. 
(1) Oh, she will sing the savageness out of a bear, 
(m) The truth we strive for often eludes us, and then we strive 
the harder. 

What phrase modifies Hail in (a)? advances? What is the 
principal word in each ? What word in each phrase connects the prin- 
cipal word to the word the phrase modifies ? What prepositional 
phrase is there in (b) ? What is the case of the principal word ? 
Because the principal word of a prepositional phrase is in the objec- 
tive case, many call it the object of the preposition. But it is not an ob- 
ject in the same sense that a noun is the object of a transitive verb. 

What part of speech is the principal word of the prepositional 
phrase in (a) ? (b) ? (c) ? (d) ? (e) ? (See Section 123.) What 



CORRECT USE OF PREPOSITIONS 207 

is to love in (f) ? What construction has it ? (See Section 222.) 
What is giving in (g) ? What is the construction of do in (g) ? of 
be seen in (h) ? (See Section 227, 4, b.) Of deliberating and 
coming in (i) ? Save means except in (j). What is the con- 
struction of the phrase in his worship ? What is the construction 
of the clause, what slanderers say ? 

What is the preposition in (1) ? What is the principal term after 
for in (m) ? (See Section 156, Ellipsis of a conjunctive pronoun.) 

A preposition is usually a single word, but at times 
two or more words are combined to show rela- p^se. 
tion, forming a phrase-preposition. The ones Pre P° sitIon - 
most commonly seen are : out of, from out, on board of, 
on this side of, in front of, according to, for the sake 
of, as to, instead of, in spite of. (See Section 62.) 

The principal term of a prepositional phrase may be — 

1. a noun; (a); 

Sometimes prepositions are followed by words that are usually 
classified as adjectives or adverbs, such as then in (d) and 
high in (e). In such cases it will be better to call the words 
nouns, as they name a time or place idea. (See Section 123.) 

2. a pronoun; (b); 

3. an infinitive or a gerund; (f) and (g); 

4. a phrase; (j); 

5. a clause; (k). 

The principal word of a prepositional phrase is often 
omitted when it is a conjunctive pronoun. It must be 
supplied in analysis. 

For the use of a preposition in making an intransitive 
verb transitive, see Section 172, 3. 

To parse a preposition, tell the words between 
which it shows the relation. arsng. 

CORRECT USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 

245. There are not a hundred prepositions in our lan- 
guage, yet these little words are very often used incor- 
rectly. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A preposition should not stand at the end of a sentence, 
unless by placing it in another position the sentence is 
made stiff and awkward. 

The custom of the best writers has decided that certain 
prepositions shall be used with certain nouns and verbs, and 
any different use displays ignorance. We should say — 

bet-ween two 

among several 

in Boston (a large city) 

at Clearwater (a small town) 

in Italy (a country) 

at the Tremont House 

on Greene Avenue 

at 175 South Fifteenth Avenue 

agree with (a person) 

agree to (a proposal) 

correspond to (a thing) 

correspond with (a person) 

compare to (to show that the first object is like the second) 

compare with (to show that two things are alike or different, and 

generally that they are different) 
one thing differs from another 
a man may differ with another 
disappointed at or with (what we already have) 
disappointed of (what we caijnot have) 
in need of, not for 
sympathy with, not for 
reconcile to a condition 
reconcile with a person 
wait for (a person or a train) 
wait on or upon (meaning " to serve ") 

Never say "different to," "different than,' 1 "remember 
of," "recollect of," "to home," " back of ." Instead of 
these say " different from," " remember," " recollect," 
"at home," "behind." 

EXERCISE. 

246. Insert the proper prepositions in the blanks. 



CORRECT USE OF PREPOSITIONS 209 

1. Both the ancient and the modern world can be seen Rome. 

2. Many critics differ Ruskin's opinion of art. 

3. The prodigal son was reconciled his father. 

4. Edmund Burke pleaded for a reconciliation the Colonies. 

5. The Charles River flows Holmes's house. 

6. No one can be disappointed seeing Niagara Falls. 

7. There are no street cars the centres of London or Paris. 

8. The streets of Naples are different those we see in 

American cities. 

9. In the Middle Ages the peasants and merchants had need 

protection the robber knights. 

10. A quarrel arose the sun and the wind. 

11. He waited the train and so was late to school. 

EXERCISE. 

247. Analyze the sentences, and parse the preposi- 
tions. 

Model. " To " is a preposition showing the relation between the 
adjective " ready " and the infinitive " do." 

1. You find people ready enough to do the Samaritan without 

the oil and twopence. 

2. The summer, after much preliminary sulking and blustering, 

seemed ready to begin. 

3. The bee does not atone for its sting by its honey-making. 

4. The morning breeze creeps up from the west. 

5. The dark months wore slowly on. 

6. His is the earliest mess of green peas ; his all the mulberries 

I had fancied mine. He keeps a strict eye over one's fruit, 
and knows to a shade of purple when your grapes have 
cooked long enough in the sun. 

7. A tiny speck very close to our vision may blot out the glory of 

the whole world. 

8. In the absence of any precise idea as to what railroads were, 

public opinion in the village of Frick was against them. 

9. It is not possible to make an omelet without breaking eggs. 

10. A sapling pine he wrenched from out the ground. 

11. The yellow violet's modest bell 
Peeps from the last year's eaves below. 

If*. All men who know not where to look for truth save in the 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

narrow well of self, will find their own image at the bottom, 
and mistake it for what they are seeking. 

13. In the midst of this sublime and terrible storm, Dame Par- 

tington, who lived upon the beach, was seen at the door of 
her house with mop and pattens, trundling her mop, squeez- 
ing out the sea- water, and vigorously pushing away the At- 
lantic Ocean. The Atlantic was roused ; Mrs. Partington's 
spirit was up. But I need not tell you that the contest was 
unequal ; the Atlantic Ocean beat Mrs. Partington. 

Sydney Smith. 

14. O'er the smooth enamelled green, 
Where no print of step hath been, 

Follow me, as I sing 
And touch the warbled string; 
Under the shady roof 
Of branching elm star-proof, 

Follow me : 
I will bring you where she sits, 
Clad in splendour as befits 

Her deity. 
Such a rural Queen 
All Arcadia hath not seen. 

Milton, Song in Arcades. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

248. A CONJUNCTION IS A WORD USED TO CONNECT WORDS, 
PHRASES, CLAUSES, OR PROPOSITIONS. (See Section 101.) 

(a) The fanning wind and purling stream continue her repose. 

(b) The waterfalls loud anthems raise, 

By day and in their dreams. 

(c) A soft answer turneth away wrath ; but grievous words stir 

up anger. 

(d) It is a very good world to live in, 
To lend or to spend, or to give in ; 

But to beg or to borrow, or to get a man's own, 
It is the very worst world that ever was known. 

(e) The trains were all delayed by the storm ; therefore the 

speaker was late. 

(f) We cannot expect to be happy, if we do not lead pure and 

useful lives. 



CONJUNCTIONS 211 

(g) I know Sir John will go, though he were sure it would rain 
cats and dogs. 

(h) The modern schoolmaster is expected to know a little of 
everything, because his pupil is required not to be entirely 
ignorant of anything. 

(i) Let it please thee to keep in order a moderate-sized farm, 
that so thy garners may be full of fruits in their season. 

(j) The warm breezes whispered such words of encouragement 
that the tender violet lifted its head from the mould. 

(k) Gather ye rosebuds while ye may. 

(1) Where there 's a will there 's a way. 

(m) Think not that thy word and thine alone must be right. 

(n) Whether a life is noble or ignoble depends, not on the call- 
ing which is adopted, but on the spirit in which it is fol- 
lowed. 

(o) The flower felt certain that spring had come. 

(p) Slowly the people are becoming convinced that dishonesty in 
public life is as base as dishonesty in private life. 

(q) There is no doubt that they will assert their conviction. 

(r) Stevenson labored each day according as he found the 
strength. 

(s) The sparrows have begun their nests as if they were sure 
that spring is here. 

(t) Either youth must learn economy or old age must suffer want. 

(u) Neither good clothes nor great wealth admit to the best 
society. 

(v) I supposed you lived together upon your Spanish estates. [ 
once thought I knew the way to mine. 

(w) He that loveth pleasure shall be a poor man : 
He that loveth wine and oil shall not be rich. 

(x) He that ruleth his speech is better than he that taketh a city. 

What does and in (a) connect ? What does the conjunction in 
(b) connect ? in (c) ? In (d), what do the conjunctions connect ? 
In (a), a noun is connected with a noun ; in (b), a phrase with a 
phrase; in (c) and (e), a proposition with a proposition. Are the 
parts of sentences connected by these conjunctions of equal rank ? 

Are the ideas connected by the conjunction in (a) alike ? Does 
and join phrases in (b) that express similar ideas ? What relation 
exists between the ideas connected by but in (c) ? by or in (d) ? by 
therefore in (e) ? 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

What kind of sentences are those from (f) to (s), — complex or 
compound ? Does the one word if in a sentence tell you that the 
sentence is complex ? Would though tell the kind of sentence ? 
Go through the other sentences, giving the clauses and the idea that 
each conjunction expresses. Is each clause subordinate to the main 
proposition ? 

What is the difference between the connectives while and where 
in (k) and (1) and the connectives in the other sentences ? (See 
Sections 97 and 101.) 

In (m), what kind of clause is introduced by that ? (See Section 
106.) By whether in (n) ? What construction has the noun clause 
in (m) ? in (n) ? Is there a noun clause in (o) ? Is it a subject ? 
Is it an object ? What does it seem to modify ? In the sentence, 
He seemed certain of it, what is certain modified by ? Could 
you supply the same preposition before the noun clause, and say that 
the noun clause is the object of the preposition ? How many more 
sentences have similar noun clauses in them ? Do they all modify 
adjectives as in (o) ? 

In (r) and (s), what connect the clauses to the principal, proposi- 
tions ? When a conjunction is composed of more than one word, 
what would be a good name for it ? Can you think of other groups 
of words used like these ? 

What pair of words is found in (t) acting as a connective between 
the propositions ? What pair in (u) ? Are these words often found 
together ? 

What is the object of supposed in (v) ? Does the noun clause 
have any introductory word ? What is the object of thought in the 
same sentence ? Has this clause any expressed introductory word ? 
What would you say about the omission of the introductory word to 
a noun clause ? (See Section 105.) Is there any connective ex- 
pressed between the propositions of (w) ? What is the connective 
that should be supplied ? 

In (x), what words have been omitted ? What must you do before 
analyzing ? Is this ellipsis common ? (See Section 103.) 

Conjunctions join words to words, phrases to phrases, 
clauses to clauses, propositions to propositions. In any 
of these cases they are uniting parts of a sentence having 
equal rank. Such conjunctions are called coordinat- 
ing. 



CONJUNCTIONS 213 

Conjunctions very often join clauses to principal propo- 
sitions. Such conjunctions are called subordinating. 

A COORDINATING CONJUNCTION IS ONE THAT JOINS PARTS OF 
A SENTENCE OF EQUAL RANK. 

A SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION IS ONE THAT JOINS A CLAUSE 
TO A PRINCIPAL PROPOSITION. 

Coordinating conjunctions may 

1. join similar ideas; using such words as and, also, moreover, 

as well as, both — and. 

2. join opposite ideas; using such words as but, yet, however, 

not only — but also. 

3 indicate a choice between two ideas; using such words 
as or, nor, either — or, neither — nor. 

4. indicate that one thought is the result or consequence 
of another; using such words as hence, therefore, accord- 
ingly, consequently. 

Subordinating conjunctions may join to a principal 
proposition a clause of 

1. condition; introduced by if, unless, whether — or, as if, pro- 

vided that; 

2. concession; introduced by though, although, as though; 

3. cause or reason; introduced by because, for, since, as, seeing 

that; 

4. purpose or result; introduced by that, lest, in order that, so 

that ; 

5. time or place; introduced by adverbial conjunctions; as, when, 

while, as, until, before, after, where; 

6. degree; introduced by as — as, so — as, than. 

The words introducing noun clauses are closely related 
to subordinating conjunctions. They do not, introductory 
however, have any connective value, and are bet- Words - 
ter called introductory words. The ones most often seen 
are that, whether, and if. 

Noun clauses are generally used as subjects or objects ; 
but they sometimes seem to be objects of prepositions 
understood. This may occur after some verb or adjective 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

indicating an action of the senses or the mind ; as, sure, 
certain, glad, conscious, surprised, convinced. For ex- 
amples, see sentences (o) to (q). 

This kind of clauses may also be disposed of by supplying " of the 
fact," and making the clause an appositive of " fact." For example, 
(o) may be made to read, " The flower felt certain (of the fact) that 
spring had come." 

A few groups of words are used as connectives ; they 
are called phrasal conjunctions. The ones most 
Conjunc- often seen are as if, as though, as "well as, 
so that, in order that, provided that, ac- 
cording as. 

A few conjunctions are found used in pairs. These 
are called correlative conjunctions. The prin- 

Conjunc- cipal correlatives are either — or, neither — 
tions. 

nor, both — and, not — but, whether — or. 

A conjunction is often omitted when the relation be- 
tween the parts of the sentence is perfectly clear without 
it. This is seen most frequently in the case of and and 
but, and of that introducing noun clauses. 

After a conjunction of comparison, as or than, there is 
often an ellipsis of a part of the dependent clause. The 
same thing occurs after as if or as though, when every- 
thing but the predicate attribute in the dependent clause 
is sometimes omitted. 

Example. The bird sang as if (he were) drunken with morning 
dew. 

CLASSIFICATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

249. 1. Correlatives should be placed immediately be- 
fore the words they are intended to connect. Either must 
be followed by or, and neither by nor. Neither — or 
is wrong. 

2. Like is a noun, an adjective, a verb, an adverb, 



CLASSIFICATION OF CONJUNCTIONS 215 

and a preposition ; but it is not a conjunction. " Do it 
like I do " is wrong ; " Do it as I do " is right. 

3. Without is a preposition or an adverb, and should 
never be used for unless. " I shall not go without he 
goes " is wrong. 

4. As is sometimes incorrectly used where that or 
■whether is the proper word. 

" I don't know as I shall go," should be " I don't know 
whether (or that) I shall go." 

5. But what is sometimes incorrectly used for but that. 
" I did not know but that (not what) he had more than 
he had earned." 

6. Sentences like the following should be changed : " He 
is as tall or taller than you." It should read : " He is as 
tall as you, or taller." 

7. The conjunction and is sometimes incorrectly sub- 
stituted for the preposition to before an infinitive ; as, 
Try and go, for Try to go. 

To parse a conjunction, give its classification, 

and the words or parts of sentences it con- conjunc- 

1 tions. 

nects. 

EXEKCISE. 

250. Correct the following errors : — 

1. We are neither acquainted with the Smiths or the Browns. 

2. Wagner was as great or greater musician than Beethoven. 

3. I do not know but what Wagner may be termed the greatest 

musician of the century. 

4. He did not know as he could learn to sing until he tried. 

5. She neither laughed or talked all the evening. 

6. He determined to try and learn and draw. 

7. He thought he could not get an education without he had a 

large sum of money. 

8. She tried to sing just like Melba does. 

9. He was neither fitted by taste or inclination to do the work. 
10. Try and study music ; it will give you as much or more plea- 
sure than any other accomplishment. 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE. 

251. The conjunctions have been omitted from the fol- 
lowing sentences. Insert those which you think are correct 
in the blank spaces, and give your reason for your choice. 

1. Private opinion is weak, public opinion is omnipotent. 

2. Millions for defense, not one cent for tribute. 

3. A kingdom is an uncertain possession, many are suitors 

for it. 

4. Power admits no equal, dismisses friendship for flattery. 

5. The glory of young men is their strength ; ■ the beauty 

of old men is their hoary beard. 

6. The poor is hated even of his own neighbor ; the rich 

hath many friends. 

7. Life is a stream upon which drift flowers in spring, blocks 

of ice in winter. 

8. The civilized man has built a coach, has lost the use of 

his feet. 

9. He is supported on crutches, lacks so much support of 

muscle. 

10. He has a fine Geneva watch, he fails of the skill to tell 

the hour by the sun. 

EXERCISE. 

252. Analyze the following sentences and parse all the 
words. 

Model. " But " is a coordinating conjunction. It connects the two 
propositions, " Private opinion is weak " and " public opinion is om- 
nipotent." 

1. Joy is more divine than sorrow ; for joy is bread and sorrow 

is medicine. 

2. Men are made by nature unequal. It is vain, therefore, to 

treat them as if they were equal. 

3. Dost thou love life ? Then squander not time, for time is the 

stuff life is made of. 

4. If you wish learning, you must work for it. 

5. Thou shouldst not have been old till thou hadst been wise. 

6. My tongue within my lips I rein ; 
For who talks much must talk in vain. 



CLASSIFICATION OF CONJUNCTIONS 217 

7. Never hold any one by the button or the hand in order to be 

heard out ; for if people are unwilling to hear you, you had 
better hold your tongue than them. 

8. The voice and manner of speaking, too, are not to be neglected. 

Some people almost shut their mouths when they speak, 
and mutter so that they are not to be understood ; others 
speak so fast, and sputter, that they are not to be understood 
either ; some always speak as loud as if they were talking to 
deaf people ; and others so low that one cannot hear them. 
All these habits are awkward and disagreeable, and are to 
be avoided by attention ; they are the distinguishing marks 
of the ordinary people who have had no care taken of their 
education. Chesterfield, from Letters to his Son. 

9. I am the owner of great estates. Many of them lie in the 
West ; but the greater part of them are in Spain. You may see my 
western possessions any evening at sunset when their spires and 
battlements flash against the horizon. 

One day as I raised my head from entering some long and tedious 
accounts in my books, and began to reflect that the quarter was 
expiring, and that I must begin to prepare the balance-sheet, I ob- 
served my subordinate, in office but not in years (for poor old 
Titbottom will never see sixty again), leaning on his hand and much 
abstracted. 

" Are you not well, Titbottom ? " asked I. 

" Perfectly, but I was just building a castle in Spain," said he. 

I looked at his rusty coat, his faded hands, his sad eye, and white 
hair for a moment, in great surprise, and then inquired, " Is it possi- 
ble that you own property there too ? " 

He shook his head silently ; and still leaning on his hand, and with 
an expression in his eye as if he were looking upon the most fertile 
estate of Andalusia, he went on making his plans. 

At length I resolved to ask Titbottom if he had ever heard of the 
best route to our estates. He said that he owned castles, and some- 
times there was an expression in his face as if he saw them. I hope 
he did. I should long ago have asked him if he had ever observed 
the turrets of my possessions in the West, without alluding to Spain, 
if I had not feared he would suppose I was mocking his poverty. I 
hope his poverty has not turned his head, for he is ver} r forlorn. 

One Sunday I went with him a few miles into the country. It 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

was a soft, bright day, the fields and hills lay turned to the sky, 
as if every leaf and blade of grass were nerves, bared to the touch 
of the sun. I almost felt the ground warm under my feet. The 
meadows waved and glittered, the lights and shadows were exqui- 
site, and the distant hills seemed only to remove the horizon farther 
away. As we strolled along, picking wild flowers, for it was summer, 
I was thinking what a fine day for a trip to Spain, when Titbottom 
suddenly exclaimed: — 

" Thank God ! I own this landscape." 

" You ? " returned I. 

" Certainly," said he. 

" Why," I answered, " I thought this was part of Bourne's pro- 
perty ? " 

Titbottom smiled. " Does Bourne own the sun and sky ? Does 
Bourne own that sailing shadow yonder ? Does Bourne own the 
golden lustre of the grain; or the motion of the wood, or those 
ghosts of hills, that glide pallid along the horizon ? Bourne owns 
the dirt and fences; I own the beauty that makes the landscape, or 
otherwise how could I own castles in Spain ? " 

George William Curtis, from Prue and 1. 



INDEX. 



INDEX. 



Absolute Words, 62. 
Abstract Nouns, 93. 
Active Voice, 21, 24, 138, 139. 
Adjectives, Definition of, 35. 

Classes of, 12S, 129. 

Comparison of, 131-133. 

Construction of, 134. 

Position of, 129. 
Adjective Clauses, G6. 
Adjective Use of Nouns, 51. 
Adverbs, Definition of, 37. 

Classification of, 202, 203. 

Comparison of, 203. 

Conjunctive, 72, 202. 

Interrogative, 202. 

Modal. 202. 

Phrasal, 203. 
Adverbial Clauses, 74. 
Adverbial Use of Nouns, 49. 
Agreement of Verbs, 164, 165. 
Appositives, 51, 108. 
Articles, 130, 131. 
Attributes, 1, 2. 

Predicate, 2, 8, 10, 17. 
Attribute Complement, 17. 
Attributive Verb, 14. 

" Be," Conjugation of, 146, 193. 

" Can," Use of, 174, 175. 
Case, 108. 

Formation of Possessive, 109. 
Classes of Sentences, 59. 
Clause, 66, 74, 79. 

Adjective, 66. 

Adverbial, 74. 

Noun, 79, 80, 82. 

of Degree, 77. 
Collective Nouns, 95. 
Common Nouns, 4. 
Comparison of Adjectives, 131-133. 
Comparison of Adverbs, 203. 
Complements, 17. 

Attribute, 18. 

Object, 18. 

Objective, 25. 



Complex Sentences, 79. 

Compound Conjunctive Pronouns, 

121. 
Compound Personal Pronouns, 100, 

116. 
Concessive Clauses, 160. 
Conditional Clauses, 157-160. 
Conjugation of Verbs, 154, 190-195. 
Conjunctions, Definition of, 75. 

Coordinating, 213. 

Correlative, 214. 

Phrasal, 214. 

Subordinating, 213. 
Conjunctive Adverbs, 72, 74, 77, 202. 
Conjunctive Pronouns, 68, 70, 100, 
112, 119-121. 

Declarative Sentences, 59. 
Declension, 111. 

of Nouns, 111. 

of Pronouns, 111, 112. 
Demonstrative Pronouns, 100, 112, 

123. 
" Do," Conjugation of, 146. 
Double Possessives, 110. 

Ellipsis, 63, 70, 77. 

Gerunds, 89, 149, 182. 
Grave Inflection, 114. 

of Pronouns, 114. 

of Verbs, 144, note. 

" Have," Conjugation of, 146. 

Use of, 172, 173. 
"He," Use of, 115. 
"Hide," Conjugation of, 195. 

Idea, An, 1, 2. 
Imperative Sentence, 59. 
Indefinite Pronouns, 101, 115. 
Indirect Object, 48. 
Infinitives, 87, 89, 180-187. 

Construction of, 181, 182, 184, 186. 

Sign of, 181, 187. 

Subject of, 184, 186. 



222 



INDEX 



Inflection, 104. 

of Nouns, 104, 111. 

of Pronouns, 111, 112. 

of Adjectives, 131-133. 

of Verbs, 154, 190-195. 

of Adverbs, 203. 
Interjections, 62. 
Interrogative Sentences, 59. 
Intransitive Verbs, 21. 

become Transitive, 139. 
Introductory Words, 57, 213. 
"It," Uses of, 57, 115. 

" Let," Use of, 174. 

"May," Conjugation of, 146. 

Use of, 172, 173, 175. 
Mode, 143, 155-163. 

Imperative, 155. 

Indicative, 155, 159. 

Subjunctive, 155-163. 
Modifiers, 32. 
"Must," Use of, 174. 

New Conjugation, 190. 
Nouns, Definition of, 5. 

Abstract, 93. 

Collective, 95. 

Common, 4. 

Construction of, 102. 

Proper, 4. 

Used adjectively, 51. 

Used adverbially, 49. 
Noun Clauses, 79, 80, 82. 

Principal Term in a Phrase, 213, 
214. 

Subjunctive in, 161. 
Number, 105. 

Formation of Plurals, 105-107. 

Object, Indirect, 48. 
Object Complement, 18. 
Objective Complement, 25. 
Old Conjugation, 191. 
" Ought," Use of, 174. 

Part of Speech, 92. 
Participles, 85, 177-179. 
Passive Voice, 21, 24, 138, 139. 
Person, 164. 
Phrases, 38, 41, 46. 
Plural Number, 105. 

Formation of, 105-107. 
Possessive Case* 51. 



Double, 110. 

Formation of, 109. 

Secondary Forms of, 116. 
Predicate, The, 29. 

Bare, 32. 

Complete, 32. 
Predicate Attribute, 2, 8, 10, 17. 
Prepositions, 206-210. 

Definition of, 44. 
Pronouns, Definition of, 6 ; 96. 

Antecedent of, 98. 

Conjunctive, 68, 100, 112, 119, 
121. 

Constructions of, 103. 

Declension of, 111, 112. 

Demonstrative, 100, 112, 123. 

Errors in Use of, 125. 

Indefinite, 101, 123. 

Interrogative, 100, 112, 117. 

Personal, 100, 111, 112. 

Eelative, 100. 

Uses of, 112, 117, 119, 123. 
Proper Noun, ,4. 
Purpose Subjunctive, 160. 

Quotations, 83. 

Secondary Possessive Pronouns, 116. 
Sentence, A, 2. 

Classes of, 59, 63. 

Types of, 13, 18, 27, 29. 
"Shall," Conjugation of , 146. 

Use of, 167. 
"She," Use of, 115. 
"Should," Use of, 170. 
Simple Sentence, 63. 
Subject of a Sentence, 2, 11. 

Bare, 32. 

Complete, 32. 
Subject of an Infinitive, 184, 186. 
Subjunctive Mode, 155-163. 
Synopsis of Verbs, 195. 

Tense, of Verbs, 142, 147. " 

of Verbals, 187. 
"That," Introductory, 79. 
" There," Introductory, 57. 
Time Clause, Subjunctive in, 162. 
Transitive Verbs, 21, 22, 137. 

Verbs, Definition of, 15 ; 136. 
Attributive, 14. 
Auxiliary, 146. 
Complete, 16. 



INDEX 



223 



Conjugation of, 154, 190-195. 
Copulative, 14. 
Incomplete, 16. 
Intransitive, 21, 22, 137. 
Principal Parts of, 190, 191. 
Transitive, 21, 22, 137. 

Verb-Phrases, 14. 
Emphatic, 153, 154. 



Necessity of, 144. 
Progressive, 151, 152. 

"Will," Conjugation of, 146. 

Use of, 167. 
Wish, Subjunctive in, 161. 
"Would, "'Use of, 170. 

"You," Use of, 114- 



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